RANKHBALL 


International  ®bmali0n 

EDITED    BY 

WILLIAM  T.  HAEKIS,  A.M.,  LL.D. 


VOLUME  XIV. 


INTERNATIONAL  EDUCATION  SERIES. 

Edited  by  W.  T.  HARRIS,  A.  M.,  LL.  D.,    United  States  Commissioner 
of  Education. 


THE  International  Education  Series  was  projected  for  the  purpose  of 
bringing  together  in  orderly  arrangement  the  best  writings,  new  and 
old,  upon  educational  subjects,  and  presenting  a  complete  course  of 
reading  and  training  for  teachers  generally.  Four  departments  are  pre- 
sented, covering  the  entire  field  of  practical,  theoretical,  and  historical 
education. 

I. — History  of  Education.  (A)  Original  systems  as  ex- 
pounded by  their  founders.  (B)  Critical  histories  which  set  forth  the 
customs  of  the  past  and  point  out  their  advantages  and  defects,  explain- 
ing the  grounds  of  their  adoption,  and  also  of  their  final  disuse. 

II. — Educational  Criticism.  (A)  The  noteworthy  arraign- 
ments which  educational  reformers  have  put  forth  against  existing  sys- 
tems :  these  compose  the  classics  of  pedagogy.  (B)  The  critical  histories 
above  mentioned. 

III. — Systematic  Treatises  on  the  Theory  of  Edu- 
cation. (A)  Works  written  from  the  historical  standpoint;  these, 
for  the  most  part,  show  a  tendency  to  justify  the  traditional  course  of 
study  and  to  defend  the  prevailing  methods  of  instruction.  (B)  Works 
written  from  critical  standpoints,  and  to  a  greater  or  less  degree  revo- 
lutionary in  their  tendency. 

IV.— The  Art  Of  Education.  (A)  Works  on  instruction 
and  discipline,  and  the  practical  details  of  the  schoolroom.  (B)  Works 
on  the  organization  and  supervision  of  schools. 

Practical  insight  into  the  educational  methods  in  vogue  can  not  be 
attained  without  a  knowledge  of  the  process  by  which  they  have  come  to 
be  established.  For  this  reason  special  prominence  is  given  to  the  his- 
tory of  the  systems  that  have  prevailed. 

Since  history  is  incompetent  to  furnish  the  ideal  of  the  future,  works 
of  educational  criticism  have  a  prominent  place.  Criticism  is  the  puri- 
fying process  by  which  ideals  are  rendered  clear  and  potent,  so  that 
progress  becomes  possible. 

History  and  criticism  combined  make  possible  a  theory  of  the  whole. 
For,  with  an  ideal  toward  which  the  entire  movement  tends,  and  an  ac- 
count of  the  phases  that  have  appeared  in  time,  the  connected  develop- 
ment of  the  whole  can  be  shown,  and  all  united  into  one  system. 

Lastly,  after  the  science  comes  the  practice,  the  art  of  education. 
This  is  treated  in  special  works  devoted  to  the  devices  and  technical  de- 
tails useful  in  the  schoolroom. 

It  is  believed  that  the  teacher  does  not  need  authority  so  much  as  in- 
sight in  matters  of  education.  When  he  understands  the  theory  of  edu- 
cation and  the  history  of  its  growth,  and  has  matured  his  own  point 
of  view  by  careful  study  of  the  critical  literature  of  education,  then  he  is 
competent  to  select  or  invent  such  practical  devices  as  are  best  adapted 
to  his  own  wants. 


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1.  THE  PHILOSOPHY  OP  EDUCATION.    By  JOHANN  K.  F.  ROSENKRANZ, 

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14.  PESTALOZZI :  His  LIFE  AND  WORK.   By  ROGER  DE  GUIMPS.    Authorized 

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KLEMM.  $1.00. 

17.  ESSAYS   ON   EDUCATIONAL   REFORMERS.      By  ROBERT   HERBERT 

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INTERNATIONAL  EDUCATION  SERIES 


PESTALOZZI 
HIS    LIFE    AND    WORK 


BY 

ROGER  DE   GUIMPS 


AUTHORIZED   TRANSLATION   FROM   THE   SECOND   FRENCH   EDITION 

BY  J.  RUSSELL,  B.  A. 

ASSISTANT   MASTER  IK  UNIVERSITY  COLLEGE  SCHOOL,   LONDON 
WITH   AN   INTRODUCTION 

BY  REV.  R.  H.  QUICK,  M.  A. 


NEW     YORK 

D.    APPLETON    AND    COMPANY 
1897 


COPYRIGHT,  1890, 
BT  D.  APPLETON  AND  COMPANY. 

Authorized  edition. 


/^<a-yvA  ti 


X-N    & 

V31   Q 


LIBRARY 

STATE  FORMAL  SCHOOL 

MtTS  »»»0  HOWE  ECONOMICS 

EDITOR'S  ' 


THE  name  of  Pestalozzi  is  forever  dear  to  the  hearts 
of  all  men.  For  he  is  the  first  teacher  to  announce  con- 
vincingly the  doctrine  that  all  people  should  be  educated 
• — that,  in  fact,  education  is  the  one  good  gift  to  give  to 
all,  whether  rich  or  poor.  The  fact  that  all  human  beings, 
whether  the  favorites  of  fortune  or  otherwise,  rejoice  in 
whatever  good  comes  to  man  because  of  his  nature  and 
independent  of  all  accidents  of  birth  or  circumstance, 
makes  secure  this  affectionate  regard  of  all  men  for  the 
hero  of  modern  pedagogy.  Education  shall  be  a  real 
panacea  for  human  ills.  It  alone  goes  at  the  root  of  hu- 
man misery.  All  other  giving  does  not  help,  because  it 
more  or  less  hinders  self-help.  Education,  intellectual 
and  moral,  alone  develops  self-help.  The  weaklings  of 
society — the  moral  weaklings  who  yield  to  temptation 
and  become  criminal,  the  intellectual  weaklings  who 
break  down  before  the  problems  of  life  and  become  im- 
becile or  insane,  the  weaklings  in  will  power  who  can  not 
deny  themselves  and  save  a  surplus  of  their  earnings,  but 
allow  themselves  to  drift  along  on  the  brink  of  pauperism 
— for  these  weaklings  education  will  furnish  a  prevent- 
ive. Their  children  may  be  educated  in  intellect  and 
morals  and  thrift.  It  is  the  paramount  duty  of  society  to 


vi  EDITOR'S  PREFACE. 

see  to  this  education,  for  the  sake  of  the  rich  as  well  as  of 
the  poor ;  just  as  society  cares  for  good  sewerage,  and  pre- 
vents the  pestilence  which  will  begin  with  the  slums  but 
end  with  the  palace.  Education  is  a  sanitary  precaution 
— a  spiritual  sanitation. 

These  doctrines,  adopted  widely  by  enlightened  people 
a  century  ago  on  the  appearance  of  Pestalozzi's  Evening 
Hour  of  a,  Hermit  (1Y80)  and  his  Leonard  cmd  Ger- 
trude (1781-'89),  have  received  a  new  emphasis  in  more 
recent  times  from  the  inevitable  trend  of  all  civilization 
toward  democracy  and  local  self-government.  If  the 
weakling  is  to  have  a  vote,  he  will  prove  a  negative  pow- 
er in  society.  He  will  furnish  a  constituency  for  the 
demagogue,  and  corruption  in  politics  will  ever  prevail  in 
proportion  to  the  number  of  illiterate,  immoral,  and  un- 
thrifty people  that  exist  in  the  state. 

Pestalozzi,  like  St.  Francis,  wedded  poverty,*  and 
with  sublime  self-sacrifice  studied  all  its  peculiarities  in 
order  to  discover  the  true  and  only  method  of  alleviating 
its  miseries. 

In  the  Philcmthropina  of  Basedow  experiments  were 
made  in  the  new  education  as  propounded  by  Rousseau, 
but  they  were  limited  almost  entirely  to  the  children  of 
rank  and  wealth.  "  Pestalozzi  directed  education  also  to 
the  lower  classes — to  the  hitherto  neglected  multitude 
without  property.  There  should  be  in  future  no  dirty, 
hungry,  ignorant,  awkward,  thankless,  and  will-less  mass 
of  people  consigned  to  live  a  merely  animal  existence. 
"We  can  never  rid  ourselves  of  the  lower  classes  by  con- 
tributions from  the  wealthy — not  even  were  they  to  give 

*  Dante,  Paradiso,  xi-62. 


EDITOR'S  PREFACE.  vil 

their  all  to  the  poor ;  the  only  way  to  cure  poverty  is  to 
open  the  possibility  of  intellectual  culture  and  independ- 
ent self-support  to  each  and  every  human  being,  just  be- 
cause he  is  a  human  being  and  a  citizen  of  the  common- 
wealth."* 

This  movement  of  Pestalozzi  is  a  part  of  the  greater 
movement  known  as  the  French  Revolution.  As  Pesta- 
lozzi is  the  prophet  of  the  new  education,  so  Rousseau  is 
the  prophet  of  the  entire  revolutionary  movement.  Pes- 
talozzi in  1764,  at  the  age  of  eighteen,  read  the  IZmile, 
and  received  the  gift  of  the  spirit.  Both  these  prophets 
were  of  Swiss  birth. 

Rousseau  attacked  all  human  institutions — the  family, 
civil  society,  the  state,  the  Church — in  the  name  of  "  Na- 
ture." All  institutions  are  factitious — artificial  combina- 
tions formed  by  man,  and  invested  with  sacredness  by  a 
sort  of  superstition  or  by  something  worse,  a  selfish  de- 
sign. "Return  to  a  state  of  Nature"  is  therefore  the 
creed  of  the  new  evangel.  Basedow  founded  his  educa- 
tional methods  on  Rousseau  direct.  France  made  experi- 
ments in  throwing  off  the  artificial  incumbrances  of  state 
and  Church,  but  ended  her  experiments  finally  by  the 
discovery  that  the  state  of  nature  is  a  state  of  violence 
and  estrangement  from  all  that  is  human  and  humane. 
She  slowly  returned  to  Bourbonism  through  an  interme- 
diate process  of  Bonapartism,  astonishing  the  world  by 
her  new  departures  before  and  since. 

Rousseauism  is  not  outgrown,  however,  but  has  fre- 
quent survivals  in  the  minds  of  all  young  persons  who  are 
just  beginning  to  throw  off  external  authority  and  think 

*  Karl  Rosenkranz. 


EDITOR'S  PREFACE. 


for  themselves.  "  To  go  back  to  a  state  of  nature  "  has 
such  a  refreshing  sound  to  the  young  enthusiast,  -because 
it  dispenses  at  once  with  the  necessity  of  that  tedious 
process  of  learning  the  mass  of  conventionalities  and  ar- 
bitrary usages  —  the  ceremonial  observances  that  form  the 
structure  of  civilization.  Dispense  with  all  this,  and 
begin  the  search  for  what  is  true  and  good  and  beautiful 
once  again  by  the  light  of  nature.  This  places  us  all  on  a 
level  —  the  sage  by  the  side  of  the  inexperienced  youth. 
But  its  practical  effect  is  nihilism. 

Perhaps  the  happiest  of  all  Rousseau's  influences  is 
his  effect  upon  Pestalozzi.  The  education  of  the  people 
as  people,  an  education  reaching  all  classes,  owes  to  Pes- 
talozzi its  greatest  debt,  and  through  him  to  Rousseau 
still  a  large  obligation.  All  the  weaklings  shall  be  devel- 
oped in  youth  in  the  school  and  made  self  -active  and  in- 
telligent, and  by  this  means  become  self  -helpful.  Pesta- 
lozzi made  this  solution  of  the  problem  clear  to  all  Europe. 
The  great  philosopher  Fichte  persuaded  Prussia  to  adopt 
public  education  as  a  state  policy,  while  Napoleon  had  ex- 
cused himself  (1802)  from  adopting  Pestalozzi's  schemes; 
"  He  had  something  else  besides  abc's  to  attend  to."  The 
subsequent  history  of  Prussia  as  affected  by  this  Pestaloz- 
zian  principle  is  the  most  instructive  study  for  all  who 
consider  the  humanitarian  doctrines  of  universal  educa- 
tion to  be  something  visionary  and  other-worldly.  At  the 
present  time  statesmanship  looks  first  to  the  war  footing 
of  the  nation,  and  next  after  this,  but  before  all  else,  to 
the  education  of  the  masses. 

The  reader  of  Pestalozzi's  biography  —  especially  of 
the  present  excellent  work,  which  embodies  so  much 
from  his  writings  —  will  study  carefully  the  sharp  differ- 


EDITOR'S  PREFACE. 


ences  which  separate  his  ideas  from  Rousseau's.  These 
will  appear  first  in  his  strongly  religious  character  and 
next  in  his  great  reverence  for  the  sacredness  of  the 
family. 

His  life  is  a  succession  of  enthusiastic  experiments, 
each  ending  in  a  failure  of  some  sort.  These  failures  are 
followed  each  by  a  period  of  depressing  reflection,  in  the 
course  of  which  Pestalozzi  seems  to  become  conscious  of 
the  personal  weakness  or  unwisdom  that  had  caused  his 
plans  to  go  wrong.  He  puts  the  fruits  of  his  experience 
into  a  treatise,  and  is  inspired  to  begin  again  a  new  ex- 
periment. 

His  writings  furnish  a  store-house  of  knowledge  of 
human  nature  —  a  store-house  which  yields  most  to  the 
wisest  reader.  The  reader  enamored  of  Rousseau's  doc- 
trines will  not  find  Pestalozzi's  writings  edifying.  They 
will  appear  exasperatingly  negative,  exhibiting  only  the 
self-contradiction  latent  in  their  theory. 

There  are,  moreover,  many  phases  of  Pestalozzianism 
which  remain  one-sided  and  hurtful,  though  stimulating. 
They  furnish  us  also  contradictions  in  Pestalozzi's  own 
practice  as  contrasted  with  his  theory. 

Karl  von  Raumer,  in  his  excellent  discussion  of  Pes- 
talozzi, has  best  exhibited  these  incongruities,  especially 
in  the  matter  of  the  much-famed  doctrine  of  "things 
rather  than  words"  —  a  dictum  usually  followed  by  a 
practice  that  teaches  words  rather  than  things  or  ideas  of 
things.  The  more  mature  reader  of  this  book  therefore 
will  watch  with  critical  alertness  the  unfolding  of  the 
doctrine  that  all  primary  instruction  should  be  addressed 
to  sense-perception  (the  so-called  Anschauungs-unterricht). 
One  will  not  be  so  unreasonable  as  to  object  to  sense-per- 


EDITOR'S  PREFACE. 


ception  as  a  phase  of  education,  but  lie  will  be  suspicious 
of  the  place  given  it  in  the  Pestalozzian  theory. 

The  question  will  arise  whether  a  premature  and  ex- 
clusive training  of  sense-perception  will  not  produce 
something  like  what  is  called  "  arrested  development "  of 
the  human  mind  at  an  animal  plane  of  intelligence. 

For  the  psychologist  soon  discovers  that  the  power  of 
thinking  (both  analytical  and  synthetical)  is  not  a  con- 
tinued and  elevated  sort  of  sense-perception,  but  rather  a 
reaction  against  it,  which  is  negative  toward  the  impres- 
sions and  images  of  sense. 

The  element  of  thought  is  generalization,  and  this 
deals  with  definitions  rather  than  with  images  or  pictures 
of  sense.  Instead  of  reproducing  the  things  of  experi- 
ence, the  thinking  activity  has  to  do  with  the  forces, 
energies,  or  causes  which  produce  things  and  likewise 
annul  and  remove  things  by  the  continual  process  of 
change. 

In  other  words,  thought  deals  with  the  dynamic  ele- 
X  ment  of  experience  rather  than  with  mere  things,  which 
are  only  static  results. 

Pursuing  this  line  of  inquiry,  the  reader  will  every- 
where find  Pestalozzi's  experiments  and  writings  of  a 
stimulating  character,  suggesting  far  more  than  they  re- 
veal, and  pointing  significantly  toward  the  great  educa- 
tional process  that  is  active  in  our  time. 

The  memory,  which  was  at  one  time  almost  the  only 
intellectual  activity  known  to  the  pedagogue,  has  now 
been  happily  placed  in  the  rank  assigned  to  it  by  its  well- 
known  limits.  The  time  is  coming  when  the  limits  of 
sense-perception  will  be  discovered  and  seen  quite  as 
clearly.  Then  we  shall  hear  more  of  the  proper  develop- 


EDITOR'S  PREFACE. 


ment  of  the  thinking  activity.  For  it  is  the  thinking 
activity  that  assimilates  the  results  of  observation  and 
brings  them  to  fruitage.  It  is  the  same  thinking  activity 
that  assimilates  also  the  stored-up  knowledge  of  the  expe- 
rience and  reflection  of  the  race  which  the  school  offers 
to  the  pupil.  Without  his  painstaking  thought,  neither 
personal  observation  nor  book-learning  will  avail  him 
much. 

W.  T.  HABKIS. 
WASHINGTON,  D.  C.,  May,  1890. 


INTRODUCTION. 


"  I  BEAD  your  essay  on  Pestalozzi,"  said  to  me  one  of 
the  three  Commissioners  who  were  some  twenty  years 
ago  empowered  to  remodel  our  endowed  schools ;  "I 
read  your  essay  on  Pestalozzi,  whom  they  are  always 
talking  about  on  the  Continent,  and  I  found  there  was 
nothing  whatever  in  him."  This  might  have  been  a 
very  effective  sarcasm,  but  I  have  reason  to  think  that 
it  was  not  so  intended.  It  was  only  an  expression  of 
our  insular  ignorance,  and  of  our  inability  to  measure 
the  effect  of  ideas.  Since  then  we  have  seen  France 
prostrate  before  Germany  ;  and  not  a  few,  both  of  the 
Germans  and  the  French,  have  attributed  the  German 
triumph  to  the  influence  of  Pestalozzi.  So  perhaps 
there  was  something  in  him  after  all. 

But  what  was  there  in  these  ideas  of  Pestalozzi 
which  can  be  supposed  to  have  so  profoundly  affected 
the  education  of  the  Germans  ?  Let  us  go  back  a  little 
pour  mieux  sauter. 

Europe  was  indebted  to  the  Renascence  for  the  con- 
ception of  "  a  learned  education."  The  key  to  all 
wisdom  seemed  to  have  been  found  in  the  classical 
languages,  and  the  highest  display  of  the  human  in- 
tellect was  seen  in  imitating  the  ancient  writings.  So 
education  was  for  the  few  ;  the  many  might  do  as  best 
they  could  without  it. 


xiv  INTRO  D  VC  TION. 


This  sixteenth  -  century  devotion  to  the  classical 
literatures  met  with  many  adversaries  in  the  centuries 
following  ;  but  the  notion  had  got  so  firmly  fixed  that; 
education  consisted  in  learning,  that  the  only  question 
it  seemed  possible  to  raise  was,  In  learning  what  ? 

A  great  advance  was  made  by  our  philosopher 
Locke,  when  he  treated  of  education  under  the  four 
heads:  (1)  Virtue;  (2)  Wisdom;  (3)  Manners;  (4) 
Learning ;  and  declared  that  learning  was  least  and 
last.  But  according  to  him,  the  education  of  the 
gentleman  was  the  only  thing  to  be  cared  for.  "  If," 
says  he,  "  those  of  that  rank  are  by  their  education 
once  set  right,  they  will  quickly  bring  all  the  rest  into 
order."  (Epistle  Ded.  to  "  Thoughts  c.  Educ.") 

Then  came  Rousseau.  From  the  circumstances  of 
his  life  he  had  no  class  prejudices,  and  he  had  a  genius 
for  thinking  himself  free  from  all  conventions.  He  it 
was  who  first  severed  entirely  education  and  learning, 
and  brought  up  his  ideal  Emile  without  any  regard 
to  the  requirements  of  "  Society." 

Pestalozzi  was,  like  Rousseau,  a  citizen  of  the  Swiss 
Republic,  and  little  fettered  by  class  distinctions.  He 
read  Rousseau  with  enthusiasm,  and  saw  what  a  force 
education  might  become.  His  great  object  in  life  was 
the  elevation  of  the  people,  and  the  consequence  was, 
he  became  "  a  schoolmaster." 

But  his  notions  of  the  schoolmaster's  function  were 
based  on  conceptions  which  then  for  the  first  time 
came  clearly  into  consciousness. 

First,  as  to  the  aim  of  education,  he  announces  that 


INTRODUCTION.  xv 

every  human  being  is  entitled  to  tJie  development  of  the 
faculties  he  was  born  with. 

Then  as  to  the  nature  of  the  educator's  task,  he  says 
that  it  consists  in  a  continual  benevolent  superintend 
dence,  with  the  object  of  drawing  out  those  faculties. 

There  is  a  strange  contrast  between  the  men  Rous- 
seau and  Pestalozzi.  Rousseau  was  a  voice,  and 
nothing  else.  Everything  that  he  did  tended  to  lessen 
the  influence  of  everything  that  he  wrote.  But  Pesta- 
lozzi taught  mainly  by  action.  In  him  the  most 
interesting  thing  is  his  life. 

One  of  the  best  authorities  we  have  had  on  educa- 
tion, my  friend  Professor  Joseph  Payne,  drew  my 
attention  to  the  excellent  biography  of  Pestalozzi  by 
the  Baron  de  Gruirnps.  Professor  Payne  has  now  been 
taken  from  us  more  than  thirteen  years,  and  I  have 
been  hoping  all  those  years  to  find  as  good  a  translator 
as  my  friend  would  have  wished  for  this  valuable 
book.  At  last  such  a  translator  has  been  found  in  a 
Cambridge  friend,  Mr.  Russell,  who  was  a  pupil  of  mine 
more  than  twenty  years  ago,  and  who  has  since  become 
familiar  with  French  educational  life  and  speech  as 
a  master  in  a  Lycee.  The  completion  of  his  task  has 
been  delayed  by  his  waiting  for  the  new  edition ;  but 
now  the  work  has  a  suitable  English  dress,  I  trust  we 
shall  find  a  large  increase  in  the  number  of  English- 
men and  Englishwomen  who  can  discern  that  there 
is  something  in  Pestalozzi. 

R.  H.  QUICK 

REDHILL. 
2 


AUTHOR'S  PREFACE  TO  THE  SECOND 
EDITION   [1888]. 

"  IN  half  a  century  from  now  every  social  stay  will  be  shaken." 
These  words  were  spoken  eighty-three  years  ago  by  a  man  who, 
to  save  the  poor  had  made  himself  poor ;  who  had  lived  as  a 
pauper  with  paupers  to  teach  paupers  to  live  like  men ;  and  who, 
after  having  sounded  all  the  depths  of  the  moral  and  intellectual 
poverty  hidden  beneath  the  brilliant  civilization  of  his  time,  had 
come  out  of  the  experience  terrified  for  the  future  of  society,  but 
bringing  it  a  means  of  salvation.  This  man,  whose  prediction 
we  now  see  fulfilled,  was  Henry  Pestalozzi. 

It  is  important  to  have  complete  knowledge  of  a  man  who, 
throughout  a  long  life,  sacrificed  himself  for  what  was,  perhaps, 
the  most  fertile  idea  of  modern  times — the  regeneration  of  nations 
by  elementary  education ;  a  man  who,  passionately  loving  the 
people  in  spite  of  their  ignorance  and  vices,  sought  to  teach  and 
raise  them  even  before  they  had  made  themselves  feared ;  a  man 
who,  in  his  ardent  desire  to  help  humanity,  became,  in  turn, 
theologian,  lawyer,  agriculturist,  manufacturer,  author,  journa- 
list, and  schoolmaster ;  a  man  who,  amid  flattery  from  kings 
and  people,  never  swerved  a  moment  from  his  course ;  a  man, 
finally,  whose  bold  and  original  genius  was,  to  the  very  last,  com- 
bined with  the  openness,  simplicity,  and  absolute  trust  of  a  child. 

Such  was  Pestalozzi.  In  another  age  and  in  other  circum- 
stances he  would  have  been  a  saint.  The  Catholic  Church  has 
few  greater  or  purer. 

The  life  of  this  man  offers  strange  contrasts.  It  will  seem  full 
of  eccentricities,  blunders,  and  even  follies,  unless  we  are  guided 
by  a  perfect  knowledge  of  his  character  and  of  the  idea  which 
was  the  mainspring  of  all  his  actions. 

His  child-like  trust,  which  prevented  him  from  thoroughly 
understanding  the  men  of  his  time,  led  him  into  many  an  error, 
and  caused  the  failure  of  his  undertakings,  and  the  world,  that 
believes  only  in  success,  condemned  Pestalozzi. 

But  posterity  has  been  fairer  to  him,1  and  to-day  his  memory 
is  venerated  and  his  devotion  admired.  We  see  that  it  is  to  him 

1  The  town  of  Yverdun  is  jnst  about  to  honour  the  memory  of  the  famoua 
man  who  lived  there  for  so  long,  a  bronze  statue  of  Pestalozzi  with  two  poor 
children  being  almost  ready  for  inauguration. 


PREFACE.  xvit 


we  owe  the  reform  of  elementary  education,  a  reform,  however, 
which,  notwithstanding  the  progress  already  made,  is  still  far 
from  complete. 

And  yet  Pestalozzi  is  still  very  little  known,  and  not  at  all 
understood,  even  those  who  have  heard  of  him  having  but  a 
vague  idea  of  the  principles  that  guided  him,  and  of  the  end 
that,  in  spite  of  disappointment  and  failure,  he  steadily  pursued 
for  so  long. 

Throughout  his  life  Pestalozzi  had  always  the  same  object  in 
view ;  and  though  the  idea  which  animated  him  developed  with 
age  and  experience,  it  never  really  changed.  As  the  illusions 
of  his  youth  vanished,  his  work  appeared  more  holy  and  moro 
beautiful,  and  the  means  he  had  employed  more  and  more  in- 
sufficient. And  so  he  never  ceased  in  his  efforts  to  perfect  and 
complete  them.  No  man  was  ever  less  satisfied  with  himself ; 
no  man  was  ever  so  quick  to  learn  from  experience.  In  one  thing 
alone  did  he  refuse  to  listen  to  its  teaching :  ingratitude  never 
lessened  his  kindness,  nor  deceit  his  trust. 

A  history  of  Pestalozzi  must,  above  all,  be  a  history  of  the 
development  of  the  great  idea  which,  in  its  successive  stages, 
he  sought  to  put  into  practice  in  the  various  enterprises  of  his 
life.  In  this  way  alone  can  it  be  true,  .clear,  and  complete. 

Such  is  the  task  we  have  set  ourselves  in  writing  this  book,  in 
which  all  who  wish  to  understand  Pestalozzi's  work  will  find  its 
true  results,  and,  we  hope,  some  practical  help  for  the  improve- 
ment of  education. 

Pestalozzi,  like  other  men,  had  his  faults  and  his  weaknesses, 
which  it  would  be  unfair  to  the  public  and  to  him  to  hide.  To 
the  public,  the  historian's  duty  is  to  hide  nothing  of  the  truth; 
to  Pestalozzi,  to  show  him  as  he  himself  has  chosen  to  appear  in 
his  appeal  to  posterity  (Song  of  the  Swan)  in  which,  in  an  excess 
of  humility  and  forbearance,  he  has  even  gone  so  far  as  to  say 
that  his  faults  alone  were  the  cause  of  his  misfortunes,  con- 
demning himself  that  he  might  save  the  beneficent  idea  he  was 
bequeathing  to  humanity.  His  glory  will  lose  nothing  if  we 
respect  this  last  wish. 

Pestalozzi's  great  and  beautiful  character  is  like  no  other ;  the 
eagle  and  the  dove,  the  lion  and  the  lamb  are  there,  the  woman 
and  the  child,  perhaps,  more  than  the  man.  Its  originality,  to  be 
fully  understood,  must  be  studied  from  its  very  earliest  growth, 
and  hence  the  importance  of  every  detail  we  have  been  able  to 
collect  concerning  the  childhood  of  a  man  who  has  already  had 
BO  many  biographers,  but  the  history  of  whose  life  is  still  so  full 
of  error  and  defects. 

Amongst  the  innumerable  works  on  Pestalozzi,  we  must  par- 
ticularly notice  Pompee's,  which  was  published  in  Paris  in  1850, 
under  the  auspices  of  the  Academy  of  Moral  and  Political  Science. 


xviii  PREFACE, 


He  gives  certain  facts  which  are  generally  wanting  in  the  Swiss 
and  German  biographers,  and  which  we  have  made  use  of  in  the 
present  work.  He  draws,  too,  a  very  true  and  lively  picture  of  the 
man  and  his  life  of  devotion;  but  the  account  of  the  fall  of  the 
Yverdun  Institute  is  so  full  of  strange  errors  and  mistaken  views, 
that  it  would  seem  that  the  author  must  have  drawn  from  a  source 
which  was  not  entirely  trustworthy.  It  is  this,  undoubtedly,  that 
has  made  him  unfair  to  many  of  Pestalozzi's  friends  and  fellow- 
workers. 

Before  finishing  this  work,  on  which  we  have  been  long  en- 
gaged, we  were  fortunately  able  to  profit  by  the  many  German 
publications  which,  for  some  years  past,  have  been  throwing  new 
light  on  the  life  and  work  of  Festal ozzi. 

Two  in  particular  have  been  very  useful  to  us  : — 

First,  that  of  Mr.  Morf,  at  one  time  head  of  the  Training 
College  in  Canton  Berne,  and  then  Director  of  the  Orphanage  at 
Winterthur,  entitled,  Documents  for  the  Biography  of  Henry 
Pestalozzi.  Mr.  Morf  has  gone  through  public  records,  private 
letters,  family  papers,  and  indeed  anything  that  was  likely  to 
throw  light  on  the  life  of  his  hero,  with  indefatigable  zeal,  and 
judges  the  work  of  the  educational  reformer  with  much  peda- 
gogical penetration.1 

The  second  is  that  of  Mr.  Seyffarth,  of  Luckenwalde, 
near  Brandenburg,  who,  between  1870  and  1873,  published  in 
eighteen  volumes  the  first  really  complete  edition  of  Pestalozzi's 
works.  Cotta's  edition,  in  1826,  included  many  books  which 
were  not  written  by  the  master,  but  by  his  assistants,  whilst 
several  of  Pestalozzi's  most  important  works  were  wanting. 
Mr.  Seyffarth  has  further  enriched  his  collection  by  the  addition 
of  several  interesting  and  characteristic  smaller  works  which 
had  remained  unpublished,  and  by  prefacing  each  of  the  bigger 
works  with  a  well- written  introduction. 

How  is  it  that  so  much  has  been  talked  and  written  about 
Pestalozzi  in  Germany  lately  P  Because  she  knows  her  present 
greatness  is  owing,  in  a  large  measure,  to  him. 

After  Jena,  when  Napoleon  persisted  in  rejecting  the  principles 
of  the  Swiss  Reformer,  Germany,  on  the  contrary,  adopted  them, 
and,  leorganizing  her  "public  education  in  this  spirit,  produced  a 
generation  of  men  who  were  not  only  instructed  but  educated. 
Afterwards,  however,  she  gradually  neglected  Pestalozzi's  doc- 
trine, especially  from  the  moral  point  of  view,  and  the  Prussian 
schools  degeuerated.  To-day,  for  instance,  they  would  be  in- 
capable of  forming  men  like  those  the  country  still  possesses 
in  the  flower  of  their  age.  All  the  best  minds  are  well  aware  of 

1  He  lias  lately  published  a  second  book,  entitled,  Leaves  from  t7ie  Story 
of  Pestalozzi's  Life  and  Sorrows. 


PREFACE.  xix 


this,  and  an  effort  is  being  made  to  restore  to  his  old  honourable 
position  the  man  whose  educational  doctrine  was  one  of  the 
chief  means  of  raising  Prussia  when  she  had  fallen  so  low. 

At  Easter,  1872,  there  was  a  Congress  in  Berlin  of  delegates 
from  the  Societies  of  Elementary  Teachers  in  Brandenburg, 
Saxony,  Hanover,  and  Hesse- Nassau.  The  Congress  represented 
more  than  ten  thousand  teachers,  and  decided  upon  the  creation 
of  a  National  Society  of  German  Elementary  Teachers,  the  head- 
quarters of  which  should  be  in  Berlin. 

On  the  4th  of  April,  Dr.  Falk,  the  Minister  of  Religion  and 
Education,  received  a  deputation  of  delegates,  who  made  three 
requests  in  the  name  of  the  Congress. 

According  to  the  Hanover  Courier  the  third  request  ran 
thus  : — 

"  The  extension  of  the  programme  of  study  for  elementary 
teachers,  and  the  organization  of  training  schools  in  accordance 
with  the  pedagogic  principles  of  Pestalozzi,  which,  thanks  to  the 
protection  of  Queen  Louisa,  Stein,  William  Humboldt,  Fichte, 
etc.,  formerly  enjoyed  so  much  favour  in  Prussia  and  so  visibly 
contributed  to  the  regeneration  of  the  country." 

In  France,  the  first  attempts  at  educational  reform  in  the 
spirit  of  Pestalozzi  were  owing  to  the  efforts  of  men  like  Cochin 
and  Pompee ;  not  however  that  the  full  value  of  the  labours  of 
the  Swiss  pedagogue  was  not  recognized  at  the  outset  by  a  large 
number  of  distinguished  men  Of  all  shades  of  opinion.  It  will 
be  enough  to  mention  Maine  de  Biran,  de  Yailly,  Georges  Cuvier, 
de  Gerando,  de  Lasteyrie,  Madame  de  Stael,  de  Clermont- 
Tonnerre,  de  Dreux-Breze,  Bourbon-Busset,  Biot,  Geoff  roi-Saint- 
Hilaire,  Sebastiani,  de  Laborde,  Gaultier,  Jomard,  Choron, 
Ordinaire,  Matter,  Delessert,  de  Broglie,  Casimir  Perrier,  and 
Victor  Cousin.  But  it  is  since  the  labours  of  Madame  Pape- 
Carpentier,  and  especially  since  the  conferences  on  sense-impress- 
ing1 teaching  in  the  Exhibition  of  1878,  that  we  may  say  that  every 
intelligent  teacher  in  France  has  sought  to  reduce  elementary 
education  to  the  principles  laid  down  by  Pestalozzi.  The 
pedagogical  works  published  during  the  last  ten  or  fifteen  years 
are  all  animated  by  the  same  spirit ;  and  if  they  do  not  all  ex- 
plicitly recommend  the  Pestalozzian  method,  they  at  least  obey 
the  tendency.  May  the  book  we  are  now  publishing  contribute 
to  the  success  of  their  efforts  ! 

1  This  word — or  sense-impressed — I  have  used  thronghout  for  intuiti) 
(anschaulich) .  For  intuition  (Anschaulichkeit)  I  have  said  sense-impression . 
[Translator.] 


CONTENTS. 


VAG3 

INTRODUCTION  ...........  iii 

AUTHOR'S  PREFACE vi 

CHAP.          I. — PESTALOZZI  THE  CHILD 1 

,,             II  — PFSTALOZZI  THE  STUDENT 8 

„            III. — PESTALOZZI  THE  AGRICULTURIST      ....  22 

„            IV. — PESTALOZZI  THE  FATHER                  ....  36 

„              V. — PESTALOZZI  THE  PHILANTHROPIST    ....  52 

„            VI. — PESTALOZZI  THE  WRITER 73 

„           VII. — PESTALOZZI'S  DOCTRINE  BEFORE  1798     .         .        .  117 

„         VIII. — PESTALOZZI  AT  STANZ      .        .        .        .        .        .  125 

„            IX. — PESTALOZZI  AT  BURGDORF 173 

„              X  — KRUSI,  PESTALOZZI'S  FIRST  FELLOW- WORKER  .         .  190 

„            XI. — PESTALOZZI'S  INSTITUTE  AT  BURGDORF    .        .        .  201 

„           XII. — PESTALOZZI'S  BOOKS  AND  METHOD  AT  BURGDOHF    .  227 

„         XIII. — FIRST  YEARS  AT  YVERDUN 2cl 

„          XIV. — DECLINE  OF  THE  INSTITUTE 275 

„           XV. — DEATH-AGONY  OF  THE  INSTITUTE    ....  321 

„         XVI. — PESTALOZZI'S  LAST  YEARS 359 

„        XYII. — PESTALOZZI'S  LAST  WRITINGS          ....  368 

„      XVIII. — PERSONAL  RECOLLECTIONS  OF  THE  AUTHOR     .         .  388 

„          XIX. — PESTALOZZI'S  EELIGION 399 

„           XX. — PESTALOZZI'S  PHILOSOPHY 406 

XXI.— PESTALOZZI'S  ELEMENTARY  METHOD                          .  412 


APPENDIX  I. — NIEDERER'S  LITERARY  COLLABORATION   .        .        .    425 

,,          II. — LIST  OF  PESTALOZZI'S  WORKS        ....    433 

III. — BOOKS  TO  CONSULT  ON  PKSTALOZZI       .        .        .     435 


Pestalozzi:    His  Life  and  Work. 


CHAPTER  I. 

PESTALOZZI   THE   CHILD. 

Influence  of  home  on  his  character  ;  influence  of  school  and  of 
a  visit  to  the  country.  To  help  the  poor,  he  decides  to  be 
a  village  pastor. 

IN  1567,  Antony  Pestalozzi,  a  Protestant  refugee  from 
Chiavenna,  and  his  wife  Madeline  de  Muralt,  of  Locarno, 
also  an  exile  from  her  country  through  having  adopted  the 
reformed  faith,  found  refuge  in  the  town  of  Zurich.  From 
them  was  descended  Andrew  Pestalozzi,  who  was  a  pastor 
at  Hongg  near  Zurich,  and  the  grandfather  of  the  subject  of 
this  biography.1 

Andrew's  son,  John  Baptist,  was  a  surgeon  of  good  standing 
in  Zurich,  and  had  acquired  some  reputation  as  an  oculist ; 
he  had  married  Susanna  Hotz,  of  Richterswyl,  a  beautiful 
village  on  the  edge  of  the  lake  of  Zurich.  Susanna  was  a 
sister  of  the  well-known  Dr.  Hotz,  and  the  niece  of  the 
General  Hotz  who  was  killed  at  Schoennis  in  1799. 

Henry,  the  subject  of  this  biography,  was  the  son  of  John 
Baptist  Pestalozzi,  and  was  born  on  the  12th  of  January, 
1746.  His  early  home  and  the  circumstances  of  his  child- 
hood had  so  great  an  influence  on  his  character  that  we 
must  give  some  account  of  them. 

In  the  middle  of  the  town  of  Zurich  stands  a  large  bridge, 
used  as  a  market  for  flowers,  fruit,  and  vegetables,  and  con- 

1  The  parish  registers  of  Hongg  afford  evidence  of  the  mistake  of  those 
biographers  who  call  this  pastor  Hotz  and  make  him  the  maternal  grandr 
father  of  Pestalozzi. 


2  PESTALOZZI:  HIS  LIFE  AND    WORK. 

necting  a  small  square  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Limmat  with 
the  square  in  which  the  Town  Hall  stands  on  the  opposite 
side.  Not  far  from  the  latter  building  and  the  quay  there 
is  a  small,  old-fashioned  square  called  Riidenplatz,  leading, 
on  the  south,  into  a  very  narrow  street.  The  corner  house 
fronting  the  street  is  the  house  where  Pestalozzi  was  boru. 
It  is  numbered  five,  and  bears  the  date  1691 ;  the  ground-floor, 
which  is  now  used  as  a  warehouse,  was  probably  in  1746  the 
shop  where,  according  to  the  custom  of  the  time,  the  chirur- 
geon  John  Pestalozzi  sold  his  simples  and  his  drugs. 

It  was  an  old  custom  in  Zurich  for  every  house  to  have  a 
name  and  sign  ;  that  in  which  Pestalozzi's  parents  lived  wad 
called  The  Black  Horn.1 

Henry  was  only  just  five  years  old  when  his  father  died, 
leaving  a  widow  and  three  children  (two  boys  and  a  girl), 
but  very  little  fortune.  Baptist,  the  eldest  boy,  died  young ; 
the  girl,  Barbara,  eventually  married  a  Mr.  Gross,  a  mer- 
chant in  Leipsic,  and  corresponded  all  her  life  with  her 
brother  Henry,  to  whom  she  was  very  much  attached. 

Susanna  Pestalozzi  was  a  gifted  woman  and  an  admirable 
mother.  Having  been  well  brought  up  herself,  she  now 
thought  of  nothing  but  her  duty  to  her  children,  and  it  was 
undoubtedly  the  educational  advantages  of  Zurich  that 
made  her  prefer  this  town  to  the  pleasanter  and  easier  life 
she  might  have  led  near  her  brother  at  Eichterswyl.  She 
must,  however,  have  sxiccumbed  under  the  difficulties  of  the 
task  she  had  set  herself,  had  it  not  been  for  the  devotion  of 
a  faithful  servant.  But  here  we  will  quote  from  Pestalozzi's 
own  account  of  his  early  education  : — 

"  My  mother  devoted  herself  to  the  education  of  her  three 
children  with  the  most  complete  abnegation,  foregoing 
everything  that  could  have  given  her  pleasure.  In  this 
noble  sacrifice  she  was  supported  by  a  poor  young  servant 
whom  I  can  never  forget.  During  the  few  months  she  had 

1  Some  have  maintained  that  Pestalozzi  was  born  at  the  Red  Lattice, 
23,  Miinsterstrasse.  a  house  which  bears  the  inscription,  Honour  to  God 
alone,  1664,  and  which  is  a  little  lower  down  than  the  one  occupied  by 
his  friend  Lavatnr.  This  is  a  mistake,  for  it  is  contradicted  not  only  by 
local  tradition  but  by  Pestalozzi's  own  statements,  as  we  shall  see.  It 
is  true,  however,  that  at  the  age  of  eighteen  Pestalozzi  lived  with  his 
mother  at  the  lied  Lattice. 


PESTALOZZ1  THE  CHILD. 


been  in  our  service,  my  father  had  been  struck  by  her  rare 
fidelity  and  unusual  quickness.  On  his  deathbed,  agonized 
at  the  thought  of  what  the  consequence  of  his  death  might 
be  for  his  family  that  he  was  leaving  almost  penniless,  he 
sent  for  her,  and  said :  '  Babeli,  for  the  love  of  God  and  all 
His  mercies,  do  not  forsake  my  wife  !  What  will  become 
of  her  after  my  death  ?  My  children  will  fall  into  the 
hands  of  strangers  and  their  lot  will  be  hard.  Without 
your  help  she  cannot  possibly  keep  her  children  with  her.' 
Her  noble,  simple  heart  was  touched,  and  her  soul  accepted 
the  sacrifice.  '  If  you  die,'  she  said,  '  I  will  not  forsake  your 
wife,  but  I  will  remain  with  her,  if  needs  be,  till  death.' 
Her  words  soothed  my  poor  father,  a  gleam  of  joy  shone  in 
his  eyes,  and  he  died  happily. 

"  She  kept  her  word,  for  she  stayed  with  my  mother  till 
she  died,  helping  her  to  bring  up  her  three  children  under 
the  most  difficult  and  painful  circumstances  imaginable,  and 
showing  in  this  work  of  patient  devotion  a  tact  and  delicacy 
which  were  the  more  astonishing,  seeing  that  she  was  entirely 
without  education  and  had  left  her  native  village  only  a  few 
months  before  to  try  and  find  a  situation  in  Zurich. 

"Her  fidelity  and  dignity  of  manner  were  a  result  of  her 
piety  and  simple  faith.  However  painful  the  conscientious 
fulfilment  of  her  promise  may  sometimes  have  been,  it  never 
once  occurred  to  her  that  she  might  break  it. 

"  My  mother's  position  as  a  widow  necessitated  the  most 
careful  economy,  and  the  trouble  that  Babeli  took  to  do 
what  was  almost  impossible,  is  hardly  credible.  To  save  a 
farthing  or  two  in  the  purchase  of  vegetables  or  fruit,  she 
would  go  two  or  three  times  to  the  market,  waiting  for  the 
moment  when  the  peasants  would  be  anxious  to  get  rid 
of  their  goods  for  the  sake  of  returning  home.  The  same 
careful  economy  was  applied  to  everything,  otherwise  my 
mother's  slender  means  would  not  have  sufficed  for  our 
housekeeping  expenses.  When  we  children  wanted  to  be 
off  somewhere  and  there  was  no  particular  reason  for  us  to 
go,  Babeli  would  stop  us,  saying  :  '  Why  do  you  want  to  go 
and  spoil  your  clothes  and  shoes  to  no  purpose  ?  See  how 
your  mother  goes  without  everything  for  your  sakes,  how 
she  never  leaves  the  house  for  months  together,  how  she  is 
saving  every  farthing  for  your  education.'  But  of  herself, 
of  what  she  did  for  us,  of  her  continual  sacrifices,  the  noble 


4  PESTALOZZI:  HIS  LIFE  AND    WORK. 

girl  never  spoke.  The  economy  in  the  house  was  not 
allowed  to  interfere  in  any  way  with  the  family  traditions, 
and  the  money  devoted  to  alms,  gratuities,  and  new  year's 
gifts  was  out  of  all  proportion  to  our  personal  expenses. 
Although  these  extra  disbursements  always  troubled  my 
mother  and  Babeli,  they  never  hesitated  to  make  them.  My 
brother,  my  sister  and  myself  had  all  fine  Sunday  clothes, 
but  we  wore  them  very  little,  always  taking  them  off  as 
soon  as  we  got  indoors,  in  order  that  they  might  last  the 
longer.  When  my  mother  expected  visitors,  no  pains  were 
spared  to  make  our  one  room  fit  to  receive  them." J 

This  economy  did  not  prevent  the  children  from  occasion- 
ally having  a  little  pocket-money.  One  day,  when  little 
Henry  had  a  few  pence  in  his  pocket,  he  was  tempted  by  the 
good  things  in  a  confectioner's  window  near  his  home  and 
went  in  to  buy  something.  The  house,  which  was  in  the 
square  and  has  since  been  restored,  was  called  The  Plough. 
The  shopkeeper's  name  was  Schulthesy,  and  inside  Henry 
found  little  Anna  Schulthess  minding  the  shop.  The  girl 
was  only  seven  years  older  than  he  was,  but  she  refused  to 
sell  him  anything  and  advised  him  to  keep  his  money  till  he 
could  make  a  better  use  of  it.  She  who  now  gave  him  this 
excellent  piece  of  advice  afterwards  became  his  wife,  and 
remained  his  good  angel  till  her  death. 

Thus  Pestalozzi  passed  his  childhood  in  an  atmosphere 
of  love,  devotion,  and  peace,  of  rigid  economy  and  of  noble 
generosity.  It  was  this,  undoubtedly,  that  made  him  trust- 
ful, self-forgetful,  calm,  and  affectionate,  and  gave  him  that 
gentle,  sincere,  and  active  piety  which  finds  pleasure  even 
in  renunciation  and  privation.  At  the  same  time  his 
imagination  did  not  remain  dormant,  indeed  its  development 
seemed  to  make  up  in  a  measure  for  his  lack  of  physical 
activity.  The  little  fellow,  nearly  always  shut  up  at  home, 
listened  eagerly  to  tales  and  readings,  of  which  he  never 
forgot  a  word.  On  the  contrary,  he  turned  them  over  and 
over  in  his  mind,  putting  himself  in  the  place  of  his  heroes 
and  making  them  act  differently  with  different  results. 
Already  he  was  busy  with  thoughts  which  took  him  far 
away  from  the  realities  of  his  life. 

1  Letter  from  Pestalozzi  to  Professor  Ith,  1802. 


PESTALOZZI   THE   CHILD. 


The  education  Pestalozzi  received  from  his  mother  left 
ineffaceable  memories  in  his  heart.  Mothers,  to  him,  were 
the  ideal  educators ;  it  was  to  them  he  addressed  his  ad- 
vice and  exhortations,  and  on  them  that  he  relied  for  the 
regeneration  of  the  people.  And  is  not  he  himself  an 
example  of  how  much  a  man's  childhood  may  be  influenced 
by  the  care,  love,  and  devotion  of  a  good  mother  ?  And  may 
we  not  think  that  if  Rousseau  had  been  brought  up  by  a  good 
mother,  his  genius  might  have  been  entirely  beneficent  ? 

But  however  excellent  Pestalozzi's  early  education  may 
have  been  in  all  the  most  important  points,  and  especially 
in  the  development  of  his  affections,  it  was  bound  to  be 
incomplete.  The  boy,  puny  from  his  birth,  always  indoors, 
brought  up  entirely  by  women,  deprived  of  a  father's  in- 
fluence, of  all  contact  with  boys  of  his  own  age,  and  of  out- 
door games  and  interests,  remained  all  his  life  small  and 
weak,  shy  and  awkward,  changeable  and  impressionable. 
As  Niederer,  who  afterwards  became  his  friend  and  helper, 
once  said :  "  In  Pestalozzi  there  was  as  much  of  the  woman 
as  of  the  man." 

The  springs  of  young  Pestalozzi's  life  were  in  the  heart 
and  imagination  alone  ;  his  thought,  swift  to  perceive  the 
relations  between  things,  and  often  turned  in  on  itself,  left 
him  absent-minded,  inattentive,  and  careless  about  mere 
formalities,  and,  as  a  general  rule,  about  the  material  con- 
ditions of  life.  He  was  unaware  of  the  exceptional  charac- 
ter of  the  family-life  he  had  enjoyed,  and  ignorant  of  what 
the  society  of  men  in  general  was  like.  It  is  easy  to  judge 
from  this  how  many  bitter  disappointments  were  in  store 
for  him. 

They  commenced  as  soon  as  he  went  to  school.  Although 
he  often  gave  proof  of  penetration,  he*  was  unsuccessful  with 
most  of  his  work;  indeed,  he  wrote  and  spelt  so  badly  that 
his  master  judged  him  to  be  utterly  incapable.  His  com- 
panions liked  him  for  his  good  disposition  and  obliging 
nature,  but  they  took  advantage  of  his  good  qualities  to 
make  a  butt  of  him.  Pestalozzi  speaks  of  himself  at  this 
period  of  his  life  as  follows : — 

"The  failures  which  would  have  sadly  troubled  other 
children  hardly  affected  me.  However  much  I  might  have 
desired  or  dreaded  anything,  when  it  was  once  over,  and  1 


6  PESTALOZZI:  HIS  LIFE  AND    WORK. 

had  had  two  or  three  nights  of  good  sleep  after  it,  if  it  con- 
cerned me  alone,  it  was  just  as  though  it  had  never  been. 
From  my  childhood  I  have  been  everybody's  plaything. 
My  education,  which  gave  food  to  all  the  dreams  of  my 
fancy,  left  me  alike  incapable  of  doing  what  everybody 
does,  and  of  enjoying  what  everybody  enjoys.  From  the 
very  first,  little  children,  my  schoolfellows,  sent  me  where 
they  would  rather  not  go,  and  I  went;  in  short  I  did  all 
they  wanted.  The  day  of  the  earthquake  at  Zurich,1  when 
masters  and  boys  rushed  pell-mell  downstairs,  and  nobody 
would  venture  back  into  the  class-room,  it  was  I  who  went 
to  fetch  the  caps  and  books.  But,  in  spite  of  all  this, 
there  was  no  intimacy  between  my  companions  and  myself. 
Although  I  worked  hard,  and  learned  some  things  well,  I 
had  none  of  their  ability  for  the  ordinary  lessons,  and  so  I 
could  not  take  it  amiss  that  they  dubbed  me  Harry  Oddity 
of  Foolborough.2 

"  More  than  any  other  child,  I  was  always  running  my 
head  against  the  wall  for  mere  trifles  ;  but  it  did  not  trouble 
me.  I  thought  I  could  do  many  things  which  were  quite 
beyond  me ;  I  measured  the  whole  world  by  my  mother's 
house  and  my  schoolroom,  and  the  ordinary  life  of  men  was 
almost  as  unknown  to  me  as  if  I  had  lived  in  another  world."  3 

yf.  From  the  time  that  he  was  nine  years  old,  young  Pesta- 
lozzi  was  invited  every  summer  to  spend  a  few  weeks  with 
his  grandfather,  Andrew  Pestalozzi,  the  pastor  at  Hongg,  a 
village  about  three  miles  from  Zurich. 

This  village  is  magnificently  situated  ;  the  hills  on  which 
it  lies,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Limmat,  slope  rapidly  on 
the  south  to  the  river,  on  the  other  side  of  which  the  ground 
is  lower  and  covered  with  houses.  The  land  at  Hongg  ia 
rich  and  divided  into  fields,  vineyards,  and  large  orchards. 
The  parsonage,  which  is  close  to  the  church,  is  still  the 
same  as  a  hundred  years  ago,  though  parts  of  it  have  been 
restored  and  modernized.  The  gardens  which  surround  it 
were  formerly  narrow  terraces  built  on  the  side  of  the  hill. 
The  dining-room,  which- is  in  the  south-east  corner  of  the 

1  The  19th  of  December,  1755. 

5  A.S  Mr.  Quick  lias  well  put  it.      [Tr.] 

J  Letter  to  1th,  already  qu<  ted. 


PESTALOZZI  THE  CHILD. 


building,  and  has  large  windows  looking  east  and  south 
commanding  a  beautiful  view  of  the  basin  of  the  Limmat,  is 
unchanged,  save  that  a  small  stove,  in  white  porcelain,  has 
replaced  the  enormous  green  structure  that  formerly  stood 
there. 

It  was  in  this  place  that  Pestalozzi,  the  schoolboy,  passed 
his  happy  holidays ;  here  that  he  learned  to  love  Nature  and 
the  work  of  the  fields ;  and  here  that  he  first  conceived  the 
noble  idea  to  which  he  was  destined  to  devote  his  whole 
life. 

Already  at  that  time  the  peasants  of  this  canton  had  begun 
to  combine  industry  with  agriculture.  As  yet  there  were 
neither  factories  nor  machinery,  it  is  time,  but  in  every  family 
there  was  a  certain  amount  of  spinning  done  by  hand. 

By  accompanying  his  grandfather  on  his  daily  visits  to 
the  schools,  the  sick  and  the  poor  of  his  parish,  the  child 
was  initiated  into  the  realities  of  the  life  of  the  people ;  and 
although  this  was  his  first  acquaintance  with  their  suffer- 
ings, he  was  touched  with  profound  compassion  for  them, 
and  from  that  moment  there  burned  in  his  heart  an  un- 
quenchable desire  to  find  some  remedy  for  the  evil. 

A  village  pastor  has  a  sublime  task,  but  a  very  difficult 
one;  his  duties  are  innumerable  and  unceasing.  Obliged 
to  be  for  ever  fighting,  and  often  single-handed,  against  the 
material,  intellectual,  and  moral  poverty  that  surrounds 
him,  and  which,  in  spite  of  all  his  efforts,  seems  ever  the 
same,  he  would  lose  heart  and  courage  if  he  were  not  sup- 
ported by  a  sure  and  well-tried  faith.  Young  Pestalozzi's 
grandfather  was  one  of  those  men  who  devote  their  whole 
energy  to  the  office  they  have  chosen.  His  faith,  which  was 
simple  and  sincere,  living  and  active,  naturally  made  a  strong 
impression  on  his  grandchild,  who  used  to  say  afterwards : 

44  The  best  way  for  a  child  to  learn  to  fear  God  is  to  see 
and  hear  a  real  Christian." 

At  the  same  time,  this  life  of  active  charity  and  sacrifice,  \ 
corresponding  with  the  boy's  deeper  feelings,  and  appealing  \ 
strongly  to  his  emotional  nature,  soon  became  his  ideal  and  ) 
his  ambition ;  and  he  made  up  his  mind  to  be  a  pastor  like  / 
his  grandfather.  It  was  therefore  decided  that  he  should 
study  theology. 


CHAPTER  H. 

PESTALOZZI   THE   STUDENT. 

Splendour  of  the  ^University  of  Zurich  in  the  middle  of  the 
eighteenth  century ;  lhe^spirit~JJtfnch  reigned  there,  and  its 
f 'influence  on  Pestalozzi  ;  he  abandons  theology  for  law  in 
order  to  reform  abuses;  he  is  condemned  as  a  revolu- 
tionary ;  he  abandons  law,  and  burns  his  manuscripts.  All 
that  remains  of  his  first  writings :  "Agis."  Carried  away 
by  the  agricultural  utopias  of  the  time,  he  becomes  an 
agriculturist  in  order  to  help  the  people. 

IN  the  middle  of  the  last  century,  higher  education  in  the 
town  of  Zurich  had  made  remarkable  progress,  and  was 
distinguished  by  a  loftiness  and  originality  which  deserve 
to  be  better  known.  The  philosophy  of  Wolff,  who  preached 
a  return  to  Nature  in  everything,  had  stirred  in  the  students 
a  triple  enthusiasm :  for  simple  manners,  for  the  revival  of 
German  literature,  and  for  political  liberty.  It  was  this 
enthusiasm  which  impelled  Pestalozzi  to  the  enterprises  of 
his  youth,  those  first  unfortunate  attempts  which  only  de- 
layed the  moment  when  he  was  to  find  his  real  vocation 
and  become  the  reformer  of  education. 

At  that  time,  theology,  medicine,  and  law  were  studied 
in  Zurich  in  the  Collegium  humanitatis,  which  was  open 
to  students  of  fifteen  years  of  age,  and  which  three  dis- 
tinguished professors  had  broiight  into  great  repute.  These 
men  were  Zimmerman,  Professor  of  Theology  (1736) ; 
Breitinger,  Professor  of  Greek  and  Hebrew  (1745) ;  and 
Bodmer,  Professor  of  History  and  Politics  (1730).  They 
had  succeeded  in  arousing  a  burning  zeal  amongst  the 
students,  and  in  imparting  to  their  work  a  particular 
tendencj'',  some  explanation  of  which  will  be  necessary  to 
the  proper  understanding  of  this  history. 

Zimmerman  was  firmly  and  sincerely  religious,  without 
being  intolerant;  he  was  quick,  open,  and  calm,  a  friend  of 


PESTALOZZI  THE  STUDENT. 


mankind  and  a  friend  of  truth.  He  had  changed  the  old 
system  of  formality  and  severity  at  the  Academy  by  making 
the  relations  between  master  and  pupil  kindly  and  pleasant. 
When  Pestalozzi  began  his  higher  studies,  however,  Zimmer- 
man had  already  been  called  to  another  post ;  but  the  in- 
fluence of  his  past  activity  continued  to  make  itself  felt 
during  the  professorship  of  his  successor. 

Breitinger  used  to  speak  of  Greek  literature  as  being  a 
source  of  wisdom  for  all  other  nations.  He  taught  it  in 
this  spirit  with  remarkable  power,  and  succeeded  in  making 
his  pupils  understand  and  appreciate  it,  and  find  not  only 
keen  pleasure  in  it,  but  valuable  instruction.  He  loved  his 
pupils  as  his  own  children,  and  looked  after  them  in- 
dividually with  such  care  that  they  all  loved  and  respected 
him  as  a  father. 

Bodmer  was  a  Professor  at  Zurich  for  nearly  fifty  years, 
and  it  is  to  him  particularly  that  the  town  owes  the  many 
talented  men  it  has  produced.  His  teaching  was  more 
especially  concerned  with  the  history  and  institutions  of 
Switzerland,  and  its  effect  was  to  inspire  his  hearers  with 
a  passionate  love  for  justice  and  liberty.  His  view  was 
that  the  manners  and  social  organization  of  the  day  were 
degenerating,  and  that  a  struggle  must  be  made  to  bring 
back  the  old  virtues.  He  taught  that  desires  must  be 
limited,  and  praised  the  simple  joys  of  domestic  life.  We 
can  form  some  opinion  of  his  teaching  from  the  following 
passage  of  his  Dialogues  of  the  Dead : 

"What  did  you  do  on  earth? — I  sought  for  happiness. 
Did  you  find  it  ? — Alas !  much  too  late.  Where  did  you 
seek  it? — In  Persia,  in  India,  in  Japan,  at  the  ends  of  the 
earth.  Where  did  you  find  it  ? — It  had  been  in  my  own 
village,  in  my  father's  house,  whilst  I  had  been  seeking  it 
thousands  of  miles  away ;  and  when  at  last,  after  many 
dangers,  I  returned  home,  I  found  it  there.  My  father,  who 
had  taken  no  step  to  find  it,  carried  it  in  his  heart.  I  just 
caught  a  glimpse  of  it  and  died." 

But  Bodmer  was  not  content  with  teaching  history  and 
politics;  he  introduced  his  pupils  to    the   masterpieces   of 
modern  literature,  especially  English.     To  him  and  Breit- 
inger, Zurich  owes  the  honour  of  having  been,  with  Leipsic, 
3 


10  PESTALOZZI:  HIS  LIFE  AND    WORK. 

the  starting-point  of  the  movement  which  has  given  Germany 
her  admirable  modern  literature. 

Soon  after  Klopstock  had  published  his  Messiah,  he  came 
to  Zurich  to  stay  with  Bodmer,  who  had  been  one  of  the  first 
to  appreciate  the  value  of  his  work.  He  was  soon  followed 
by  Wieland  and  Kleist,  so  that  gradually  the  little  Swiss 
town  became  quite  a  centre  of  literary  activity.  Kleist 
wrote  to  Grleim: 

"  Zurich  is  really  one  of  the  finest  places  in  the  world, 
not  only  on  account  of  its  magnificent  position,  but  on 
account  of  the  men  to  be  found  there.  Whereas  in  great 
Berlin  there  are  not  more  than  three  or  four  men  of  taste 
and  genius,  in  little  Zurich  there  are  twenty  or  thirty." 

So  great  was  the  influence  of  these  professors  on  their 
pupils,  that  the  latter  came  to  despise  wealth,  luxury,  and 
material  comfort,  and  cared  for  nothing  but  the  pleasures  of 
the  mind  and  soul,  and  the  unceasing  pursuit  of  justice  and 
truth.  For  a  long  time  Pestalozzi  and  his  friends  slept  on 
the  bare  ground,  with  no  other  covering  but  their  clothes, 
and  ate  nothing  but  bread  and  vegetables. 

Such  was  the  spirit  which  reigned  in  the  University  of 
Zurich  about  1760,  seven  or  eight  years  after  Klopstock's 
visit  to  his  friend  Bodmer.  It  was  at  this  time  that  young 
Pestalozzi  arrived  there.  His  previous  studies  in  a  humble 
school  had  not  prepared  him' in  any  way  for  the  University, 
but  this  lofty  teaching  suited  his  character,  and,  acting 
powerfully  on  his  impressionable  nature,  furnished  his  facul- 
ties with  the  stimulus  and  food  they  lacked.  As  a  schoolboy, 
he  had  not  shown  much  power,  but  now  he  rapidly  became 
a  distinguished  scholar.  He  was  still  little  more  than  a  boy, 
when  the  University  honoured  him  by  printing  a  translation 
he  had  made  of  a  speech  of  Demosthenes. 

He  afterwards  referred  to  his  academical  studies  in  these 
words : 

"The  spirit  of  the  public  teaching  in  my  native  town, 
though  eminently  scientific,  was  calculated  to  make  us  lose 
sight  of  the  realities  of  life,  and  lead  us  into  the  land  of 
dreams.  All  the  best  of  us,  Lavater  not  excepted,  were  mere 
dreamers.  We  had  decided  to  live  for  nothing  but  indepen- 


PESTALOZZ1   THE  STUDENT.  \\ 

dence,  well-doing,  sacrifice,  and  love  of  country,  but  we  were 
without  the  practical  knowledge  necessary  for  reaching  these 
ends.  We  were  taught  to  despise  the  external  advantages 
of  wealth,  honour,  and  consideration,  and  to  believe  that  by 
economy  and  moderation,  it  is  possible  to  do  without  most 
of  the  things  considered  essential  by  ordinary  middle-class 
people.  We  were  beguiled  by  a  dream,  to  wit,  the  possibility 
of  enjoj'ing  independence  and  domestic  happiness  with- 
out having  either  the  power  or  the  means  of  acquiring  that 
position  which  alone  can  give  them.  These  dreams  had  all 
the  more  power  over  us  because  it  was  to  our  best  feelings 
that  they  appealed  when  they  incited  us  to  make  a  stand 
against  the  decay  of  the  old  Swiss  spirit,  that  spirit  of  sim- 
plicity, dignity,  and  fidelity,  which  had  once  been  the  glory 
of  our  country,  but  which  at  that  time  was  already  slowly 
disappearing  from  amongst  us." 

No  man  was  ever  a  greater  victim  than  Pestalozzi  himself 
of  this  illusion  which  he  calls  a  dream,  this  ideal  which  he 
pursued  with  so  much  self-forgetfulness ;  and  yet  is  it  not 
just  because  he  reached  so  high  a  point  in  this  high  path, 
that  he  made  the  discoveries  which  have  rendered  his 
memory  immortal? 

We  have  seen  that  young  Pestalozzi  wanted  to  be  a  pastor, 
like  his  grandfather.  He  accordingly  studied  theology,  but 
after  having  brought  his  studies  to  a  successful  close,  he 
discovered  that  he  could  not -preach.  It  is  even  said  that 
in  the  middle  of  his  trial-sermon  an  uncontrollable  fit  of 
laughter  seized  him  and  obliged  him  to  stop.  So  he  gave 
up  the  ministry  to  study  law.  But  this  change  was  not  en- 
tirely the  result  of  his  inability  to  preach,  for  his  thoughts 
had  long  been  taking  another  direction,  and  slowly  leading 
him  to  another  sphere  of  activity. 

Already,  as  a  child  at  school,  Pestalozzi  had  had  a  horror 
of  injustice  and  oppression,  and  had  always  been  the  cham- 
pion of  those  who  were  wronged.  One  day  he  had  taken  to 
task  a  worthless  under-master  who  had  been  guilty  of  some 
injustice,  and,  to  the  amazement  of  the  whole  class,  his 
energy  had  carried  the  day.  Later,  in  an  anonymous  letter 
addressed  to  the  educational  authorities,  he  had  disclosed 
the  vices  which  were  secretly  imdermining  a  public  educa- 
tional institution ;  this  letter  had  excited  some  very  angry 


12  PESTALOZZI:  HIS  LIFE  AND    WORK. 

feeling,  and  on  its  authorship  being  discovered,  Pestalozzi, 
although  an  inquiry  had  proved  the  truth  of  his  statements, 
had  been  threatened  with  severe  punishment,  and  had  been 
obliged  to  escape  to  Hongg  to  his  grandfather. 

There  he  had  heard  the  peasants  complain  how  the  our- 
gesses  of  Zurich  lorded  it  over  them,  monopolized  the  trade 
in  the  town,  and  refused  to  sell  them  the  right  of  citizenship. 
Often,  too,  he  had  stayed  with  his  uncle  Hotz  at  Richters- 
wyl,  the  inhabitants  of  which  village  made  the  same  com- 
plaints as  those  of  Hongg.  The  doctor  used  to  speak  with 
great  bitterness  of  the  "gracious  lords  of  Zurich,"  and  one 
day,  when  his  nephew  was  boasting  of  the  liberty  of  the 
Swiss  peasants,  he  replied  sharply,  "Don't  talk  so  much 
about  their  liberty ;  they  are  no  more  free  here  than  in 
Livonia." 

The  impressions  thus  made  on  young  Pestalozzi  by  his 
visits  to  the  country  were  all  the  keener  and  deeper  for 
being  associated  with  the  memory  of  happy  days  spent 
amongst  a  class  of  people  who  always  made  him  welcome, 
and  in  a  place  where  he  was  able  to  enjoy  a  freer  and  more 
active  life  than  he  had  ever  enjoyed  in  Zurich. 

At  that  time,  the  village  pastors  of  the  canton  were  for 
ever  repeating  the  old  adage  about  evil  coming  from  the 
town.  Young  Henry  felt  this  too.  "  When  I  am  big,"  he 
used  to  say,  "  I  shall  support  the  peasants ;  they  ought  to 
ha've  the  same  rights  as  the  townspeople." 

At  the  university,  too,  where  Bodmer's  teaching  had 
directed  his  attention  to  the  political  state  of  his  country, 
he  Was  one  of  the  most  ardent  amongst  those  young  men 
who  were  anxious  to  reform  everything  in  Zurich,  and 
whose  actions  in  the  pursuit  of  liberty  and  justice  occa- 
sionally caused  their  parents  so  much  embarrassment,  anxiety, 
and  trouble. 

In  the  middle  of  the  last  century,  the  country  districts  iu 
most  of  the  Swiss  cantons  were  dominated  by  the  towns, 
which  were  themselves  governed  by  a  certain  number  of 
privileged  families,  whose  government  was  generally  mild 
and  kind,  though  the  people  had  no  right  to  take  part  in  it. 
In  Zurich,  some  thirteen  trade-guilds  monopolized  all  the 
industry  and  commerce  of  the  place. 

The  desire  for  greater  liberty  showed  itself  first  amongst 
the  students,  and  was  caused  to  a  very  great  extent  by  the 


PESTALOZZI  THE  STUDENT.  13 

example  of  the  people  of  Geneva,  who  had  for  a  long  time 
been  complaining  of  the  domination  of  the  patrician  families, 
who  had  gradually  robbed  the  people  of  all  their  ancient 
rights.  In  1738,  France  and  the  cantons  of  Berne  and 
Zurich,  appealed  to  by  the  Genevan  Government,  had  in- 
duced the  people  and  the  magistrates  to  accept  their  media- 
tion, and  had  obtained  for  the  former  the  right  of  remonstrance 
and  veto  in  all  measures  which  affected  the  constitution. 
And  so,  in  1762,  when  the  Government,  following  in  the 
steps  of  the  Paris  Parliament,  condemned  the  author  ofEmile 
and  The  Social  Contract,  the  people  espoused  Rousseau's 
side  very  warmly,  and  addressed  a  remonstrance  to  the 
magistrates,  asking  that  the  decree  should  be  repealed 
as  being  in  every  way  unjust  and  ill-advised.  But  the 
petitioners  were  civilly  dismissed,  and  their  petition  dis- 
regarded. 

These  doings  made  a  great  stir  in  Zurich,  and  caused 
great  excitement  amongst  the  patriotic  students,  who  ex- 
pressed their  entire  sympathy  with  the  people  of  Geneva 
and  for  a  time  almost  worshipped  Rousseau,  in  whose  writ- 
ings they  found  so  many  eloquent  passages  in  praise  of 
Nature,  simple  manners  and  country  life,  that  were  entirely 
in  harmony  with  their  own  views. 

These  young  Liberals,  several  of  whom  afterwards  became 
famous,  now  undertook  a  crusade  against  the  abuses  and  in- 
justices of  the  time.  During  the  years  1763,  1764,  and  1765 
they  formally  complained  of  three  high  functionaries  ;  and  an 
inquiry  having  proved  the  truth  of  the  facts  they  alleged, 
the  guilty  persons  were  dismissed.  The  magistrates,  how- 
ever, alarmed  at  the  spirit  which  was  animating  these  young 
men,  blamed  their  action,  and  punished  them  with  one  or 
two  days'  confinement  in  the  Town  Hall. 

In  the  spring  of  1765,  Bodmer  had  founded  a  Helvetian 
Society,  which  used  to  meet  every  week  to  hear  and  discuss 
essays  by  its  members  on  questions  of  history,  education, 
politics,  or  ethics,  and  which  contributed  in  no  small  degree 
to  spread  liberal  ideas  amongst  the  students. 

Of  this  society  Pestalozzi  was  one  of  the  most  enthusiastic 
members. 

The  same  year,  the  students  started  a  weekly  local  paper 
called  the  Memorial.  As  its  aim  was  purely  moral,  politics 
were  not  touched  on  ;  indeed,  at  that  time,  the  discussion  of 


H  PESTALOZZI:  HIS  LIFE  AND    WOVK. 

politics  in  a  public  paper  was  forbidden.  The  editors  were 
Lavater  and  Fiissli ;  but  Pestalozzi  was  one  of  the  chief 
contributors,  and  it  is  interesting  to  see  the  sort  of  thoughts 
that  occupied  him  at  the  age  of  nineteen.  The  following  are 
a  few  extracts  from  his  articles : — 

rt  I  am  told  nearly  every  day  that  a  young  man  who  occu- 
pies such  a  very  unimportant  position  in  his  country  as  I  do, 
should  attempt  neither  to  criticise  nor  to  make  things  better ; 
that  both  are  beyond  his  province.  I  may,  however,  be 
allowed  to  express  my  wishes  ;  this  at  least  nobody  can 
either  forbid  or  find  fault  with.  I  propose,  then,  to  formu- 
late my  wishes  and  print  them  for  everybody  to  read.  As 
for  those  who  may  make  fun  of  me,  I  can  only  hope  that  they 
will  soon  learn  to  know  better." 

"  I  would  have  no  great  mind  too  indolent,  or  too  proud  of 
its  own  greatness  to  labour  for  the  public  good  with  courage 
and  perseverance ;  I  would  have  no  one  despise  4he  very 
humblest  of  his  fellow-creatures  when  they  are  honest  and 
industrious." 

"  I  would  have  parents  exercise  more  care  in  choosing 
companions  for  their  children.  For  who  does  not  ksow  what 
a  powerful  influence  good  or  bad  companionship  has  on 
young  souls  ?  " 

"  I  would  have  people  as  eager  to  speak  of  a  man's  progress 
and*  good  qualities  as  they  are  to  tell  his  faults.  Do  we 
not  owe  this  justice  to  our  neighbour  who  is  trying  to  be 
better  ?  " 

"  I  would  i?hat  one  of  our  doctors  would  make  an  abstract 
of  Tissot's  excellent  book,  and  that  by  the  self-denial  of  a 
few  rich  people  this  abstract  might  be  sold  to  every 
peasant  for  a  half  or  third  of  its  price." 

This  wish  suggests  another  : 

"  I  would  that  some  one  would  draw  up  in  a  simple  manner 
a  few  principles  of  education  intelligible  to  everybody  ;  that 
some  generous  people  would  then  share  the  expense  of  print- 
ing, so  that  the  pamphlet  might  be  given  to  the  public  for 


PESTALOZZI  THE  STUDENT,  15 

nothing,  or  next  to  nothing,  I  would  then  have  clergymen 
distribute  it  to  all  fathers  and  mothers,  so  that  they  might 
bring  up  their  children  in  a  rational  and  Christian  manner 
But  perhaps  this  is  asking  too  much  at  a  time." 

"  I  would  have  all  who  work  with  their  hands,  all  whose 
lives  are  industrious,  frugal,  and  independent,  looked  upor 
as  the  pillars  of  our  liberty,  and  held  more  in  honour  amongsl 
us." 

"  I  would  that  all  my  fellow-citizens  could  study  the  history 
of  Switzerland  and  the  laws  of  the  canton,  and  that  the  new 
Helvetian  Society  would  furnish  them  with  the  means." 

Meanwhile  the  irritation  caused  at  Geneva  by  the  con- 
demnation of  Rousseau  had  resulted  in  differences  between 
the  magistrates  and  the  people,  which  were  becoming  more 
and  more  pronounced  and  threatening,  and  in  1766,  the 
government  again  asked  for  the  mediation  of  Zurich,  Berne, 
and  France,  "  to  save  the  country."  The  deputies  from  these 
three  States  met  at  Geneva  in  March,  and  proposed  an 
arrangement  which  suited  the  magistrates,  but  did  not 
satisfy  the  people,  who  rejected  it  by  a  great  majority  on 
the  15th  of  December. 

A  rumour  having  reached  Zurich  that  troops  were  to  be 
sent  to  Geneva  to  force  the  people  to  accept  the  proposal 
made  by  the  deputies,  the  town  was  thrown  into  a  great 
state  of  excitement,  and  nothing  else  was  talked  about, 
nearly  everybody  approving  of  the  step.  The  young 
patriots  however  were  violently  opposed  to  it,  and  debated 
whether  it  would  not  be  possible  to  put  the  whole  matter 
before  the  people  of  Zurich  in  such  a  way  that  they  would 
refuse  to  become  an  instrument  of  injustice. 

A  young  theologian,  C.  H.  Muller,  made  the  attempt,  by 
drawing  up  a  short  statement  in  the  form  of  a  dialogue 
between  peasants.  The  conclusions  which  he  put  into  the 
mouth  of  one  of  the  interlocutors  were  as  follows : 

"  The  townspeople  of  Geneva  have  a  right  to  make  what 
laws  they  please  ;  for  the  liberty  of  a  people  consists  in  ita 
being  able  to  organize  its  government  as  it  likes.  Besides, 
it  was  formally  stipulated  that  the  people  should  be  free,  to 


16  PESTALOZZI:  HIS  LIFE  AND    WORK. 

adopt  or  reject  the  various  constitutional  measures,  and  now 
that  they  have  rejected  this  mediation  by  a  great  majority, 
are  we  to  go  and  force  them  to  accept  it?  Such  a  pro- 
ceeding would  be  treasonable,  shameful,  infamous,  and  a 
government  that  insisted  on  it  would  no  longer  deserve  our 
confidence.  Come  what  may,  then,  I  for  one  shall  not  go." 

Muller,  saying  the  paper  had  been  given  him  by  some  one, 
read  it  privately  to  a  few  friends,  and  then  locked  it  up  in 
his  desk.  But  he  afterwards  allowed  a  student  named 
Wolff  to  take  a  copy,  and  Wolff  distributed  it  amongst  the 
other  students. 

It  was  not  till  the  24th  of  January,  1767,  that  the  magis- 
trates heard  of  it.  Their  patience  was  now  exhausted,  and 
they  were  furious  ;  they  even  suspected  a  conspiracy,  and 
appointed  a  special  commission  to  discover  the  author  of 
the  pamphlet  and  have  him  arrested. 

This  was  on  a  Saturday.  That  same  evening,  Pestalozzi. 
on  the  advice  of  Lavater  and  other  friends,  went  to  Muller 
to  urge  him  to  confess  to  the  magistrates  that  he  had 
written  the  pamphlet.  Muller  promised  to  do  so  ;  but  on 
going  to  his  house  the  next  day,  Pestalozzi  found  that  he  had 
fled  in  the  night.  Pestalozzi  thereupon  hastened  to  consult 
his  friends  Lavater,  Ftissli,  and  Vogel,  and  it  was  agreed 
that  if  Muller  had  really  run  away,  they  should  tell  the 
magistrates  all  they  knew  of  the  matter.  But  others  had 
been,  before  them,  and  Muller  had  been  already  denounced 
by  several  citizens.  Their  readiness  to  do  this  is  explained 
by  the  fact  that  all  the  townspeople  were  bound  by  an  oath 
to  tell  the  authorities  everything  which  affected  the  State. 
But  in  this  matter,  most  of  them  acted  without  regret,  and 
were  certainly  not  actuated  by  a  sense  of  duty  merely,  for 
nearly  everybody  was  just  as  indignant  as  the  magistrates 
themselves.  The  latter  indeed  received  many  addresses,  of 
which  the  following  may  be  given  as  a  specimen  : 

"  The  faithful  citizens,  in  assuring  their  gracious  lords 
of  their  devotion,  humbly  beg  to  make  the  following 
request : 

"  Do  not  let  your  zeal  in  this  matter  grow  cool,  lest  the 
welfare  of  the  State  as  well  as  your  own  peace  and  safety  be 
imperilled ;  continue  rather  earnestly  and  boldly  to  stifle  at 


PESTALOZZI  THE  STUDENT.  17 

their  very  birth  the  serpents  who  are  seeking  to  poison  the 
State." 

All  the  young  patriots  who  were  thought  to  be  concerned 
in  the  conspiracy  were  examined,  and  some  of  them  were 
confined  in  the  Town  Hall.  The  result  of  the  inquiries 
showed  that  the  pamphlet  had  been  written  without  any 
malicious  intention,  and  that  those  who  had  distributed  it 
had  done  so  without  the  author's  knowledge,  believing  it  to 
be  quite  harmless. 

But  nothing  could  soothe  the  anger  and  fright  of  the 
"  gracious  lords  and  their  faithful  subjects."  They  were  par- 
ticularly indignant  with  Pestalozzi,  and  confined  him  several 
times,  believing  that  it  was  he  who  had  suggested  flight  to 
Muller. 

The  burgomaster  had,  however,  received  a  letter  from  the 
fugitive,  in  which  he  acknowledged  that  he  was  the  author 
of  the  dialogue,  explained  how  it  came  to  be  distributed 
without  his  consent,  and  asked  pardon  for  this  boyish  fault, 
which  he  had  committed  without  any  malicious  intention. 

But  the  magistrates  were  too  angry  to  forgive,  and  the 
inquiry  was  conducted  as  if  it  had  been  a  question  of  saving 
the  country  from  some  great  danger. 

"  The  faithful  people  "  did  not  conceal  their  indignation 
either,  for  in  the  streets  and  on  the  market  places  the 
students  were  many  times  threatened  with  death. 

On  Sunday,  the  1st  of  February,  1767,  a  proclamation 
by  the  Government  was  read  in  the  whole  canton,  apprising 
the  astonished  peasants  of  the  existence  of  an  abominable 
pamphlet,  which  endangered  the  safety  of  the  State,  and 
ordering  that  its  author,  Charles  Muller,  should  be  arrested 
and  handed  over  to  justice  by  any  one  who  should  meet  him. 

The  sentence,  pronounced  on  the  llth  of  February,  de- 
clares Muller  unworthy  of  the  holy  ministry,  and  banishes 
him  for  ever  from  Swiss  territory,1  orders  the  copies  of  his 
pamphlet  to  be  publicly  burned,  condemns  a  dozen  students, 
Pestalozzi  amongst  them,  to  bear  the  expenses  of  their  con- 
finement, warns  them  that  if  they  continue  to  speak  against 
the  Government  they  will  lose  their  right  of  citizenship, 

1  Muller,  afterwards  a  professor  in  Berlin,  is  famous  for  having  been 
the  first  to  introduce  the  Nibelungen  to  the  literary  world. 


1 8  PESTALOZZI;  HIS  LIFE  AND    WORK. 

and  forbids  the  publication  of  the  Memorial,  A  commission 
was  also  appointed  to  control  the  students  and  to  prevent 
them  from  forming  associations. 

In  the  eyes  of  his  fellow-citizens  Pestalozzi  was  no  longer 
anything  but  a  dangerous  revolutionary.  Nor  did  the  effects 
of  the  sentence  cease  to  make  themselves  felt  for  a  long 
time ;  indeed  the  undertakings  even  of  his  middle  age 
suffered  from  it.  As  all  chance  of  a  public  appointment 
was  now  gone,  he  had  to  relinquish  his  hope  of  being  able 
to  improve  the  condition  of  the  people  by  legislation. 

He  cared  little  for  the  harshness  of  the  rich,  but  he  was 
deeply  hurt  by  the  part  taken  in  the  matter  by  those  whom 
he  had  meant  to  serve. 

The  real  cause  of  the  material  poverty  of  the  people,  he 
reasoned,  is  their  intellectual  and  moral  degradation.  In  an 
election,  after  having  sworn  to  support  the  best  citizen,  they 
always  find  some  good  reason  for  electing  the  worst.  But 
as  only  those  can  be  really  helped  who  are  in  a  position  to 
help  themselves,  the  first  step  towards  an  improvement  in 
the  condition  of  the  people  will  be  to  tee  that  they  are 
properly  educated. 

On  abandoning  his  legal  studies,  Pestalozzi  threw  his 
manuscripts  into  the  fire,  and  thus  all  the  numerous  writings 
of  his  early  youth  were  lost,  except  one  which  had  been 
printed  in  a  Review  published  at  Lindau  and  Leipsic,  called 
An  Account  of  some  of  the  Most  Remarkable  Writings  of 
Our  Times  (1766,  No.  12,  pp.  346-372).  His  article  is 
entitled  Agis,  and  bears  the  date  1765,  with  these 
words : — 

"  This  article  was  written  by  a  young  man  of  great 
promise,  not  yet  twenty  years  old,  and  was  not  originally 
intended  for  publication." 

This  Review  is  not  to  be  had  now,  but  Agis  has  just 
been  included  in  the  complete  edition  of  Pestalozzi's  works, 
published  at  Brandenburg  by  L.  W.  Seyffarth.  It  is  the 
earliest  of  Pestalozzi's  productions  that  we  possess,  and  is 
far  too  remarkable  to  be  dismissed  without  further  mention. 

It  will  be  remembered  that  our  author,  when  still  a 
student  and  a  very  poor  Greek  scholar,  shocked  by  the 
literary  defects  in  a  translation  of  Demosthenes  published 


PESTALOZZI  THE  STUDENT.  19 

by  his  professor  of  Greek,  had  himself  translated  a  part  of 
the  third  speech  to  the  Athenian  people,  and  in  such  a  way 
as  to  excite  universal  admiration.  This  translation  serves 
as  a  preface  to  the  history  of  Agis,  and  is  intended  to  show 
how  in  the  times  which  preceded  the  Macedonian  invasion, 
the  Greeks  had  forsaken  the  old  simplicity  of  life  and  the 
old  virtues  that  had  so  long  contributed  to  their  strengin 
and  happiness.  The  picture  of  this  decadence  has  such  a 
striking  resemblance  to  the  state  of  Switzerland  in  the  last 
century,  that  the  translator,  in  a  footnote,  and  with  a  touch 
of  irony,  reminds  those  readers  who  might  fancy  they  had 
detected  allusions  to  the  present  time  that  the  Athenians 
only  are  in  question,  and  that  it  is  Demosthenes  who  is 
speaking. 

Then  follows  the  history  of  Agis,  that  king  of  Sparta,  who 
at  a  time  when  the  laws  of  Lycurgus  had  fallen  into  neglect, 
had  undertaken  to  revive  them.  Although  brought  up  in 
luxury  and  idleness,  he  had  resisted  their  seductions,  and 
now  lived  with  severe  simplicity,  trying  to  make  the  rich 
follow  his  example,  and  endeavouring  to  bring  about  a  new 
division  of  land  for  the  purpose  of  restoring  the  old  condi- 
tions of  equality.  The  attempt,  however,  failed,  and  Agis 
paid  for  it  with  his  life. 

From  beginning  to  end  of  the  sketch  Pestalozzi  eloquently 
preaches  the  cause  of  the  reform  undertaken  by  Agis,  and 
one  cannot  help  thinking  that  he  sought  in  that  way  to  pre- 
pare a  new  era  for  his  country,  in  which  the  Utopian  schemes 
that  then  filled  the  thoughts  of  all  the  most  generous-minded 
students  in  Zurich  might  be  realized.  But  by  burning  all 
he  had  written,  Pestalozzi  now  seemed  to  be  acknowledging 
that  he  had  been  moving  in  the  wrong  direction,  and  to  be 
condemning  the  system  by  which  he  had  been  led  away. 

According  to  several  of  his  biographers,  it  was  at  this 
period  of  his  life  that  he  said :  "  I  will  be  a  schoolmaster." 
But  this  is  a  mistake ;  for  he  did  not  find  his  true  vocation 
till  later,  when,  having  become  a  father,  he  gave  all  his  best 
thought  and  care  to  the  education  of  his  child. 

On  leaving  the  law  Pestalozzi  turned  to  agriculture. 

To  follow  this  new  direction  of  his  thought,  and  to 
understand  how  it  was  that  he  saw  in  this  fresh  sphere 
of  activity  yet  another  way  of  raising  the  people,  we  must 
first  know  something  of  the  many  Utopian  schemes  for  the 


20  PESTALOZZI:   HIS  LIFE  AND    WORK. 

improvement  of  agriculture  which  at  that  time  found  ao 
ceptance  with  the  younger  generation  in  Zurich. 

The  cultivation  of  the  soil  was  making  marked  progress 
in  different  countries,  and  was  held  in  great  honour  by 
moralists  and  philosophers.  Stimulated  by  Bodmer's  teach- 
ing and  Rousseau's  writings,  the  young  men  of  Zurich  saw 
in  the  improvement  of  this  important  art  the  salvation  of 
the  poor  and  a  remedy  for  every  evil.  Schulthess,  of  Zurich, 
who  had  seen  Rousseau  in  Geneva,  used  to  relate  that  the 
philosopher  had  said  to  him :  "  Agriculture  is  the  best  and 
happiest  of  all  occupations.  In  countries  which  are  not 
free,  men  are  compelled  to  become  mechanics,  but  in  free 
countries  it  is  better  to  be  an  agriculturist." 

In  the  autumn  of  1765,  Bodmer  wrote  as  follows  to  Sulzer 
at  Winterthur : 

"  The  love  of  the  country  is  very  strong  in  Fiissli,  and  still 
stronger  in  his  friend  Meiss,  the  son  of  the  colonel,  who  is 
anxious  to  be  a  thoroughly  capable  farmer,  and  already 
knows  more  than  the  peasants.  It  is  surprising  how  many 
of  our  best  students  have  taken  a  fancy  to  farm- work ;  they 
have  already  learned  to  mow,  and  to  bear  heat  and  rain  like 
the  peasants.  I  am  only  afraid  that  they  have  begun  too 
late.  Their  young  friend  Van  Hausen  began  earlier,  and  his 
skill  in  field-work  has  been  much  admired." 

To  this  Sulzer  replied : 

"  My  wish  for  Winterthur,  as  well  as  for  Zurich,  would  be 
that  only  a  small  number  of  the  leading  magistrates,  mer- 
chants and  manufacturers  should  remain  in  the  town,  and 
that  the  rest  of  the  citizens  should  settle  in  the  country  on 
small  holdings,  where  they  would  live  by  their  work  on  the 
land  and  lead  a  life,  not  indeed  like  that  of  our  peasants, 
but  still  simple  and  unpretending.  I  think  those  parents 
who  are  so  perplexed  to  know  what  to  do  with  their  sons, 
would  do  well  to  buy  for  each  of  them  a  small  quantity  of 
laud  in  the  country,  and  let  them  live  by  cultivating  it.  I 
am  sorry  not  to  have  set  the  example  myself  when  I  was 
able  ;  I  think  I  may  safely  say  that  in  a  few  years  I  should 
have  been  in  a  very  good  position."  1 

1  Were  not  these  wild  schemes  suggested  by  a  vague  feeling  of  danger  f 


PESTALOZZI  THE  STUDENT.  21 

Such    were   the   ideas   that   were   current    amongst   the 
students  of  Zurich  when  Pestalozzi  gave  up  the  study  of  law 
and  turned  his  attention  to  agriculture.     His  hope  was  that/ 
by  setting  an  example  of  an  improved  method  to  the  Swisa 
peasants,  he  would  enable  them  not  only  to  live  in  comfort  A 
but  provide  for  their  children  that  intellectual  and  moral 
training  which  is  so  necessary  for   the   citizens   of  a  re- 
public 

Already  in  the  manufacturing  districts,  the  peasants,  tempted  by  the 
prospect  of  larger  wages,  were  flocking  to  the  towns  and  joining  that 
large  class  of  workers  who  have  no  direct  interest  in  the  land  of  the 
country,  who  have  nothing  to  fall  back  upon  when  work  is  slack,  and 
who  fiom  their  rapid  increase  have  been  called  the  proletariat. 


CHAPTER  III. 

PESTALOZZI   THE   AGRICULTURIST. 

Engaged  to  Anna  Schulthess  ;  after  studying  agriculture  with 
Tschiffeli,  he  buys  land  near  Birr ;  during  the  building  of 
his  house  at  Birr  he  lives  at  Muligen  ;  his  marriage  ;  birth 
of  his  son;  he  settles  in  his  new  house:  Neuhof.  Failure 
of  his  enterprise. 

AT  the  time  that  Pestalozzi  turned  his  attention  to  agri- 
culture, he  was  engaged  to  be  married  ;  and  it  is  in  his 
correspondence  with  his  future  wife  that  we  find  the  most 
valuable  information  as  to  the  thoughts  and  plans  that  now 
occupied  him.  The  reader  will  not  have  forgotten  the  young 
Anna  Schulthess,  who  gave  such  good  advice  to  Pestalozzi, 
when,  as  a  child,  he  wanted  to  buy  sweetmeats  in  the  shop 
adjoining  his  mother's  house.  The  girl  had  great  natural 
intelligence,  and  had  received  an  unusually  good  education. 

When  her  father,  J.  J.  Schulthess,  started  in  business  at 
the  sign  of  The  Plough,  he  had  already  travelled  much  and 
observed  much,  and  had  everywhere  sought  the  society  of 
educated  people.  In  spite  of  his  commercial  pursuits,  his 
devotion  to  art  and  literature  remained  unchanged,  and  his 
house  became  one  of  the  favourite  resorts  of  men  of  taste 
and  learning.  The  poet  Klopstock  himself  was  his  guest 
during  his  visit  to  Zurich. 

Though  Anna  was  only  a  child,  all  this  made  a  lasting 
impression  on  her,  for  at  a  very  early  age  she  had  under- 
stood and  enjoyed  both  the  intellectual  and  emotional  pleasure 
of  the  study  of  literature  and  the  fine  arts.  Her  diary,  from 
which  we  shall  often  have  occasion  to  quote,  and  which,  like 
her  father,  she  kept  all  her  life,  is  a  proof  of  the  nobleness  of 
her  nature.  She  was  both  musician  and  poet,  and  even  in 
her  old  age  retained  her  freshness  of  imagination.  Some 
verses  that  she  wrote  when  quite  an  old  woman  in  imitation 
of  Wordsworth's  "  We  are  seven  "  have  been  preserved. 

Among  the  men  of  taste  and  education  who  frequented 


PESTALOZZI   THE  AGRICULTURIST.  23 

Schnlthess's  house,  there  was  an  intimate  friend  of  Pesta- 
lozzi's  called  Bluntschly,  a  young  man  of  remarkable  intelli- 
gence and  high  character.  Only  four  years  older  than 
Pestalozzi,  he  was  in  the  last  stage  of  consumption,  and 
knew,  as  everybody  else  knew,  that  he  must  soon  die.  This 
ci'-cumstauce  lent  a  strange  seriousness  and  sadness  to  the 
litei  ary  friendship  which  had  sprung  up  between  him  and 
the  young  Anna.  She  afterwards  spoke  of  him  as  follows : 

"Before  I  can  forget  him  I  must  forget  myself;  I  can 
indeed  never  forget  the  charm  and  energy  of  his  conversa- 
tion ;  I  did  nothing  without  consulting  him ;  he  was  gay, 
gentle  and  kind.  We  were  in  the  habit  of  talking  over  the 
best  ways  of  helping  the  poor.  .  .  .  One  day  I  asked  his 
opinion  of  some  ribbons  I  had  to  choose  from.  '  They  are 
beautiful,'  he  said,  'but  so  long  as  your  poor  neighbour 
has  more  need  of  a  few  shillings  than  you  of  those  ribbons 

'     And  at  once  I  decided  to  do  without  the  ribbons  and 

everything  that  was  not  really  necessary." 

Pestalozzi  and  Bluntschly  had  the  same  ideas  and  feelings 
and  the  same  projects.  But  Bluntschly  had  a  better  know- 
ledge of  men  and  things ;  he  was  more  prudent,  his  mind 
was  more  matured,  and  he  saw  how  little  his  friend  was 
suited  for  practical  life.  When  he  felt  his  end  drawing 
near,  he  called  Pestalozzi  to  him  and  said : 

"  I  am  going  and  you  will  be  left  alone.  Avoid  any  career 
in  which  you  might  become  the  victim  of  your  own  goodness 
and  trust,  and  choose  some  quiet  life  in  which  you  will  run 
no  risk.  Above  all,  do  not  take  part  in  any  important  under- 
taking without  having  at  your  side  a  man  who,  by  his  cool 
judgment,  knowledge  of  men  and  things,  and  unshakable 
fidelity,  may  be  able  to  protect  you  from  the  dangers  to  which 
you  will  be  exposed." 

Bluntschly  died  on  the  24th  of  May,  17G7,  leaving  Pesta- 
lozzi and  Anna  in  deep  grief.  The  friend  they  had  just  lost 
had  already  taught  these  two  young  people  to  appreciate 
each  other,  and  now  their  common  grief  brought  them  nearer. 
A  warm-hearted  eulogy  of  Bluntschly  that  Pestalozzi  wrote 
and  offered  to  Anna  touched  her  deeply  and  filled  her  with 
gratitude.  It  was  by  meeting  every  day  and  comparing 


24  PESTALOZZI:  HIS  LIFE  AND    WORK. 

sorrowful  memories,  that  they  at  last  came  to  love  each 
other,  so  that  it  was  in  a  certain  sense  to  Bluntschly  that 
Pestalozzi  owed  the  admirable  and  devoted  wife  who  waa 
his  support  for  forty-six  years. 

Pestalozzi  was  small  and  ugly.  His  health,  never  good, 
had  been  broken  by  work  and  study,  and  the  doctors  had 
advised  him  to  take  a  long  rest  in  the  country.  He  was 
entirely  careless  of  his  appearance  and  was,  indeed,  incapable 
of  dressing  properly ;  .he  was  clumsy  and  awkward  in  every- 
thing he  did,  and  in  his  absent-mindedness  often  forgot  part 
of  his  dress.  He  was,  in  short,  without  any  of  those  quali- 
ties which  are  supposed  to  inspire  a  woman  with  liking  for 
a  man.  But  Anna  saw  deeper.  "  Such  nobleness,"  she  said, 
"  such  elevation  of  character,  reach  my  very  soul."  Their 
hearts  were  one  then,  and  they  exchanged  vows. 

As  soon  as  they  were  formally  affianced,  they  began  a 
correspondence,  and  from  the  end  of  the  summer  of  1767  to 
the  autumn  of  1769,  when  they  were  married,  exchanged 
frequent  letters.  Of  these  letters  nearly  three  hundred  of 
Pestalozzi's^  and  two  hundred  of  Anna's  have  been  preserved. 

The  celebrated  letter  that  has  been  quoted  in  so  many 
biographies  is  missing  from  this  collection,  but  the  young 
girl's  answer  is  there,  and  this  answer  seems  to  prove  that 
the  letter  as  quoted  does  not  exactly  agree  with  the  original. 
At  any  rate,  it  was  not  in  this  letter  that  he  asked  her  to 
marry  him. 

The  most  striking  and  authentic  part  of  this  letter,  which 
was  published  for  the  first  time  in  1828,  in  a  German  news- 
paper, runs  as  follows : 

"  I  will  not  speak  to  you  of  my  carelessness  in  dress  and 
manner ;  it  is  indeed  great,  and  is  but  too  well  known.  I 
am  reproached  with  having  too  many  subjects  of  distraction. 
I  have  friends  everywhere,  it  is  true,  and  subjects  which 
interest  me,  but  I  have  only  given  attention  to  them  in  the 
hope  of  making  myself  useful.  I  also  know  and  appreciate 
the  sweets  of  solitude,  the  peace  of  the  domestic  fireside  ;  it 
will  be  my  happiness  to  enjoy  it  more  in,  the  future.  I  no 
longer  want  a  large  circle  of  friends,  but  I  do  not  regret  the 
years  I  have  given  to  social  intercourse.  I  have  learned  to 
know  my  countrymen,  and  this  knowledge  will  be  useful  to 
me  by  and  by.  As  my  health  is  not  very  good,  I  think  it 


PESTALOZZI  THE  AGRICULTURIST.  25 

more  than  probable  you  will  survive  me,  though  my  doctor 
assures  me  there  is  at  present  no  cause  for  anxiety  ;  but  I 
do  not  think  my  life  will  pass  without  important  and 
dangerous  undertakings." 

In  one  of  Anna's  letters  we  read : 

"  You  might  perhaps  say  that  Nature  had  done  little  for 
you,  if  she  had  not  given  you  those  large  dark  eyes,  which  tell 
of  all  the  goodness  of  your  heart  and  breadth  of  your  mind." 

There  was  indeed  an  inexpressible  tenderness  in  Pesta- 
lozzi's  look,  which  was  sometimes  flashing  with  intelligence 
and  energy,  sometimes  meditative  almost  to  sadness. 

The  following  letter  shows  that  Anna  approved  of  Pesta- 
lozzi's  plans  for  a  country  life,  and  also  that  he  was  anxious 
to  make  this  life  a  basis  for  some  scheme  of  patriotic  philan- 
thropy. 

"  I  am  glad  to  find  that  you  too  think  life  in  a  town  un- 
suited  to  the  sort  of  education  we  think  best.  My  cottage 
must  certainly  be  far  from  such  a  centre  of  vice  and  misery. 
I  shall  be  able  to  do  more  for  my  country  in  a  solitary  hut 
than  in  the  tumult  of  the  city.  When  I  am  in  the  country 
and  see  that  one  of  my  neighbours  who  is  in  want  has  a 
child  of  great  promise,  I  shall  take  this  child  by  the  hand 
and  make  a  good  citizen  of  him  ;  he  will  work,  he  will  have 
enough  to  eat,  and  will  be  happy.  And  should  this  young 
man  do  a  noble  action  and  incur  the  scorn  of  those  who  fear 
men  only,  he  will  find  food  in  my  house  as  long  as  I  have 
any.  I  shall  take  pleasure  in  drinking  nothing  but  water  to 
give  him  the  milk  I  prefer,  that  he  may  see  how  much  I 
esteem  the  nobleness  of  his  character.  And  then, my  beloved, 
you  will  be  content  \$  see  me  drinking  water  only.  Is  it  not 
true  that  to  help  our  neighbours  we  are  willing  to  limit  our 
needs  so  far  as  is  reasonably  possible  ?  How  much  more  I 
could  say  about  this  happy  outlook,  the  joy  of  having  chil- 
dren, the  unexpected  visits  of  friends!  But  I  must  stop  and 
will  only  say  one  thing  more  :  circumstances  may  some  day 
take  me  from  our  fireside  ;  I  shall  never  fail  in  what  a  loyal 
citizen  owes  to  his  country.  But  I  know,  my  beloved,  that 
the  fulfilment  of  any  duty  is  a  delight  to  you." 

Anna's  parents  did  not  approve  of  this  union  ;  her  mother 
4 


26  PESTALOZZI:   HIS  LIFE  AND    WORK. 

particularly  dreaded  the  consequences  that  the  enterprising 
and  eager  nature  of  a  young  man  with  so  little  prudence 
and  knowledge  of  the  world  might  have  for  her  daughter's 
happiness. 

Much  as  he  loved  Anna,  however,  our  young  reformer 
would  not  give  up  his  agricultural  projects.  Furnished  with 
a  letter  of  introduction  from  his  friend  Lavater,  he  went  to 
Tschiffeli,  at  Kirchberg,  near  Berne,  who  at  that  time  had 
made  a  great  reputation  by  his  manner  of  cultivating  his 
land  and  by  the  tempting  innovations  he  had  introduced, 
one  of  the  most  important  of  which  was  madder-growing. 

Almost  immediately  after  his  arrival,  Pestalozzi  wrote  to 
Anna  thus : 

"  I  am  at  last  settled,  and  am  happier  than  I  ever  expected 
to  be.  It  is  the  happiest  household  you  can  imagine. 
Tschiffeli,  the  great  agriculturist,  is  the  kindest  of  fathers. 
I  shall  learn  farming  in  all  its  branches  and  in  all  its  latest 
developments.  I  shall  certainly  become  independent  of  the 
whole  world." 

And  a  little  later  : 

"  Tschiffeli  makes  up  for  the  loss  of  all  my  friends.  This 
profession  that  I  have  chosen  will  enable  me  to  make  our 
home  very  comfortable,  for  Tschiffeli,  who  really  makes  a 
great  deal  of  money  by  his  farming,  is  teaching  me  his 
whole  system  most  thoroughly,  so  that  I  feel  sure  of  being 
able  to  do  exactly  as  he  is  doing." 

Anna  Schulthess  had  four  brothers  younger  than  herself; 
the  second,  Graspard,  had  been  intimate  with  Pestalozzi,  and 
had  always  known  and  approved  of  his  love  for  his  sister. 
Just  at  this  time  he  was  appointed  to  a  pastor's  post  at  Neu- 
chatel,  whither  Anna  went  with  him  to  see  him  comfortably 
established  in  his  new  home.  They  passed  by  Kirchberg  to 
see  Pestalozzi,  who  was  of  course  happy  to  see  Anna  again 
and  accompanied  them  to  Neuchatel.  In  the  course  of  this 
journey,the  brother  and  sister  introduced  their  friend  to  several 
of  their  acquaintances,  doing  their  best  to  make  them  appre- 
ciate his  worth  ;  but  so  unfavourable  was  the  first  impres- 
sion prod  uced  by  Pestalozzi's  appearance,  and  by  the  strange- 
ness of  his  manners,  that  their  trouble  was  thrown  away. 


PESTALOZZI  THE  AGRICULTURIST.  27 

Pestalozzi  spent  a  whole  year  at  Kirchberg,  where  he  was 
very  happy.  He  took  part  in  all  the  work  of  the  farm,  and 
was  proud  of  showing  his  visitors  his  horny  hands  and  sun- 
browned  face.  His  zeal  at  that  time  for  the  improvement  of 
agriculture,  was  one  of  those  youthful  enthusiasms  that  are 
always  so  fruitful  of  illusions.  If  tke  question  of  making 
money  entered  into  his  thoughts,  it  was  only  because  it  was 
necessary  for  him  to  reassure  Anna's  parents  about  his 
future  position. 

He  had  formed  plans  for  a  method  of  cultivation  which  he 
expected  would  be  very  profitable.  Indeed,  so  confident 
was  he  of  success  that  no  shadow  of  doubt  ever  crossed  his 
mind.  He  gives  Anna  all  the  details  of  these  plans  in  a 
letter  which  is  too  long  to  be  given  in  full : 

"  I  shall  cultivate  nothing  but  madder  and  vegetables. 
Tschiffeli  has  fifteen  acres  down  in  madder  and  gets  won- 
derful crops.  The  expenses  of  growing  it  will  not  be  higher 
near  Zurich  than  here,  and  the  soil  is  much  more  favour- 
able. 

"  As  madder  takes  sixteen  months  to  ripen,  I  shall  begin 
by  planting  fifteen  acres  of  poor  land,  which  I  shall  endea- 
vour to  improve  the  first  year.  If  I  buy  twenty  acres  of 
waste  land,  my  third  crop  of  madder  ought  to  repay  the 
purchase  money  ;  and  then  sixteen  months  later  I  shall  have 
another  crop,  and  so  on.  But  as  I  shall  have  to  wait  for  the 
madder,  I  must  grow  something  else  for  a  living  in  the 
meantime. 

"The  best  way  of  getting  anything  out  of  the  land  the  first 
year  is  to  grow  vegetables.  The  method  of  growing  vege- 
tables has  undergone  improvements  of  which  people  in 
Zurich  know  nothing,  but  which  I  have  had  explained  to  me 
by  a  very  clever  gardener  here.  I  have  seeds  of  much 
better  quality  than  those  to  be  had  in  our  markets,  and  I 
have  learned  how  to  keep  vegetables  through  the  winter  so 
as  to  be  able  to  sell  them  in  the  spring  when  they  are  worth 
twice  the  money.  I  shall  make  good  use,  too,  of  the  manure 
that  is  at  present  wasted  in  Zurich,  and  in  this  way  I  shall 
soon  fertilize  the  very  worst  land  in  the  district." 

After  speaking  of  growing  cabbages,  cauliflower,  broccoli, 
asparagus,  artichokes,  etc.,  and  calculating  how  many  planta 


PESTALOZZI ;  HIS  LIFE  AND    WORK. 

go  to  the  acre,  and  what  yield  he  will  have  for  the 
market,  Pestalozzi  continues : 

"  I  shall  limit  myself  to  these  two  things  ;  I  shall  have 
neither  meadows,  fields,  vines  nor  cattle,  nothing  but  madder 
and  vegetables. 

"  My  one  thought,  my  one  occupation  all  day  long,  is  to  .it 
myself  for  this  work  I  have  chosen.  Now  you  know  what 
my  plans  are.  In  forming  them  I  have  been  helped  by  the 
eminent  agriculturist  with  whom  I  am  living.  Do  you  not 
think,  beloved,  I  am  right  to  say  that  by  putting  all  my 
strength,  all  my  intelligence  and  zeal,  into  this  work,  I  shall 
be  quite  able  to  supply  the  modest  wants  of  a  family  living 
in  the  country,  and  living  principally  on  the  produce  of  its 
own  land.  But  my  master  and  I  go  farther ;  we  think 
that  in  this  way  I  shall  not  only  be  able  to  provide  what  is 
absolutely  necessary  for  my  family,  but  be  certain  of  making 
them  a  very  comfortable  home. 

"Examine  what  I  have  said  with  the  greatest  care,  beloved, 
to  see  whether  it  is  clear  and  reasonable.  In  all  my  plans  I 
have  been  guided,  as  you  know,  by  the  experience  of  the 
great  agriculturist  Tschiffeli.  How  happy  I  shall  be  if  they 
please  you,  and  satisfy  your  revered  parents !  " 

Anna  was  both  trustful  and  hopeful,  but  her  parents' 
doubts  and  fears  were  as  strong  as  ever. 

Early  in  the  autumn  of  1768,  Pestalozzi,  full  of  courage  and 
confidence,  came  back  to  Zurich,  to  find  land  suitable  for 
his  purpose.  His  choice  fell  on  Letten,  in  the  western  part 
of  the  plain  called  Birrfeld,  in  Aargau.  He  there  purchased, 
for  twent3*-three  pounds,  some  fifteen  acres  of  land  at  the  foot 
of  the  hill  on  which  Braunegg  Castle  stands,  and  between 
this  hill  and  the  village  of  Birr.  This  small  quantity  of  land 
he  gradually  increased  by  buying  up  the  neighbouring  fields 
from  their  peasant  owners,  till  he  found  himself  the  master 
of  about  a  hundred  acres ;  and  a  Zurich  banker  having  joined 
in  the  undertaking  and  advanced  him  fifteen  hundred  pounds, 
he  was  at  last  in  a  position  to  put  his  projects  into  execu- 
tion. 

As  there  was  no  house  on  the  land,  he  settled  temporarily 
at  Muligen,  a  small  village  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Reuss, 
about  two  miles  to  the  west  of  Letten.  The  house  he  occu- 


PESTALOZZI  THE  AGRICULTURIST.  29 

pied  was  an  old  mansion,  said  to  have  been  the  ancestral 
home  of  some  noble  family  of  the  district ;  it  now  belonged, 
however,  to  Mr.  Froehlich,  of  Brugg,  a  friend  of  Pestalozzi's, 
who  let  him  house,  barns,  and  garden,  for  an  almost  nominal 
sum. 

His  good  mother,  who  divided  her  attentions  between  her 
son  and  her  father-in-law,  helped  him  to  get  his  house  n 
order.  The  old  pastor  was  still  living  at  Ho'ngg,  but  had 
become  very  infirm.  Pestalozzi  had  once  said,  speaking  of  his 
mother :  "  If  you  could  only  see  what  she  does  at  Hongg, 
how  she  denies  herself,  and  what  she  bears  for  our  sakes 
.  .  . "  Anna  also  contributed,  though  in  secret,  towards 
the  wants  of  the  new  household. 

The  faithful  Babeli  had  remained  in  Zurich,  and  Anna 
had  written  about  her  to  Pestalozzi  as  follows  : 

"  I  cannot  look  upon  our  good  Babeli  as  a  servant,  but  as 
a  friend.  Our  first  care  must  be  to  ensure  her  a  peaceful 
old  age.  I  chatted  with  her  for  an  hour,  and  we  paid  a 
visit  together  to  grandpapa.  It  is  astonishing  how  careful 
and  sensible  she  is  in  everything." 

Pestalozzi  describes  his  new  establishment  thus  : 

"  The  place  I  am  living  in  has  many  charms.  My  rooms, 
newly  plastered  and  whitewashed,  are  pleasant,  and  will  do 
well  enough  for  the  present.  The  house  stands  by  itself 
at  some  little  distance  from  the  road,  and  is  very  quiet. 
Our  three  rooms  get  the  sun  at  noon  and  at  evening,  and 
the  sweetest  music  from  the  birds  every  morning.  The 
water  is  so  pure  that  there  is  said  to  be  none  like  it  within 
thirty  miles,  and  the  air  is  the  finest  in  the  world.  We  are 
at  the  foot  of  a  low  hill,  from  the  top  of  which  yo\i  can  see 
across  eighteen  miles  of  plain.  The  Reuss,  very  useful 
for  the  transport  of  madder,  flows  quite  near  the  village. 
There  is  a  pleasant  garden  adjoining  the  house,  and  even 
our  yard  is  shaded  by  fine  trees.  ...  So  much  for 
comfort.  What  is  more  important  is  the  advantage  that 
such  a  position  will  be  to  my  undertaking ;  the  low  price 
of  land,  for  instance,  its  suitability  for  madder-growing, 
and  the  ease  with  which  it  may  be  broken  up  into  fields. 
The  whole  district  is  poor,  so  that  labour  will  be  cheap. 
Indeed,  in  every  respect,  I  shall  have  the  advantage  of 


30  PESTALOZZI:  HIS  LIFE  AND    WORK. 

Tschiffeli.  My  neighbours  now  seem  very  friendly,  so  that 
my  fears  of  the  first  few  days  on  this  score  have  entirely 
disappeared.  If  they  did  not  receive  me  very  well  at  first, 
it  was  not  that  they  felt  any  ill-will  against  me,  but  that 
they  were  angry  with  some  friends  who  had  stupidly 
exerted  their  authority  in  my  favour.  Two  days  later  they 
were  all  glad  that  I  had  come  here,  and  I  felt  it  my  duty  to 
reward  their  friendliness  with  something  to  drink." 

The  house  that  Pestalozzi  lived  in  at  Muligen  has  under- 
gone few  alterations.  It  is  a  one-storied  house,  facing  west, 
the  hamlet  lying  a  little  below  among  the  trees.  The  front 
has  six  windows,  with  a  door  in  the  middle.  The  wall 
which  enclosed  the  yard  is  gone,  but  the  trees  which  shaded 
it  are  still  nourishing.  The  old  lattice  windows  have  been 
replaced  by  large  panes,  and  the  iron  bars  which  protected 
them  have  been  removed.  The  old  green  earthenware 
stoves  are  still  there.  The  barn  is  close  to  the  house  on  the 
north  side,  and  on  the  east  is  the  garden.  Muligen  is  close 
to  the  river  Reuss,  which  flows  swiftly  between  high  banks, 
and  can  only  be  crossed  by  boat,  as  there  is  no  bridge  near. 
The  village  of  Birmensdorf,  so  celebrated  for  its  mineral 
waters,  is  not  far  off  on  the  other  side  of  the  river,  and  can 
be  seen  from  the  hamlet. 

Whilst  he  was  alone  at  Muligen,  Pestalozzi  once  had  the 
pleasure  of  seeing  Anna,  on  the  occasion  of  a  visit  she  paid 
to  a  friend  in  the  neighbouring  town  of  Brugg. 

But,  on  the  whole,  he  had  no  lack  of  pleasant  society,  for 
he  was  well  received  by  many  of  the  inhabitants  of  the 
district,  and  had  besides  many  visitors.  In  spite  of  all  this, 
however,  he  soon  began  to  suffer  from  his  isolation,  so  that 
Anna  had  to  cheer  him  and  exhort  him  "not  to  be  always  so 
sad."  To  this  his  only  answer  was  to  beg  that  their  marriage 
should  be  no  longer  delayed.  Anna's  parents,  however, 
still  withheld  their  consent,  and  it  was  as  much  as  Pesta- 
lozzi's  friends,  Lavater,  Fussli,  Hotz,  and  others  could  do 
to  make  them  promise  that  they  would  not  forcibly  restrain 
their  daughter  from  doing  as  she  liked. 

With  a  sad  heart,  then,  but  with  perfect  confidence  in 
Pestalozzi,  Anna  left  her  father's  house.  Her  mother's  words 
to  her  on  leaving  were :  "  You  will  have  to  be  satisfied  with 
bread  and  water."  Her  father's  diary  shows  that  she  had 


PESTALOZZI  THE  AGRICULTURIST.  31 

no  dowry  beyond  her  personal  effects  and  her  piano.  The 
marriage  took  place  in  the  presence  of  a  few  friends  on  the 
30th  of  September,  1769,  in  the  church  at  Grebistorf,  Pestft- 
lozzi  being  twenty-three  years  old  and  Anna  thirty. 

Immediately  after  her  marriage,  Anna  commenced  a 
diary,  which  she  kept  most  regularly,  and  in  which  her 
husband  himself  often  wrote.  This  diary  will  henceforth 
be  one  of  our  most  valuable  sources  of  information.1 

Notwithstanding  what  we  have  said,  Anna's  parents  were 
soon  reconciled  to  their  daughter's  marriage.  Only  ten 
weeks  afterwards,  we  find  both  Anna  and  Pestalozzi  staying 
at  The  Plouyh  on  a  visit,  which  was  to  be  for  three  days 
only,  but  which  lasted  for  three  happy  weeks.  The  young 
couple  helped  to  make  the  New  Year's  bonbons,  and  wrote 
many  a  joke  on  the  subject  in  their  diary.  They  also  visited 
all  their  relations  and  friends,  chief  amongst  whom  was 
Festal ozzi's  good  mother.  They  left  Zurich  on  the  28th 
of  December,  taking  with  them  the  friendship  and  blessings 
"  of  both  families."  That  day  they  "  dined  twice/'  and  then 
"  taking  boat,"  arrived,  "  thanks  to  the  Almighty,"  safely  at 
Muligen. 

The  very  next  day  Pestalozzi  was  back  on  his  land,  busy 
with  plans  for  the  future,  and  eager  to  begin  the  building 
of  a  dwelling-house  and  barn.  Meanwhile  he  had  sown  his 
fields  with  sainfoin. 

On  St.  Sylvester's  Day  they  baked  a  small  batch  of  bread 
for  the  poor,  and  were  well  rewarded  for  their  pains  by  the 
joy  of  the  recipients.  On  the  1st  of  January  they  went  to 
church  at  Birmensdorf. 

So  happy  were  they  in  their  love  for  each  other,  that  for 
the  greater  part  of  that  year  everything  seemed  to  prosper, 
and  success  seemed  certain.  Anna's  parents  often  came 
to  see  them,  sometimes  bringing  money  to  support  the  new 
venture,  and  Pestalozzi  and  she  paid  many  visits  to  their 
friends  in  the  neighbourhood. 

At  the  same  time  Pestalozzi  worked  exceedingly  hard 
with  both  head  and  hands,  exposing  himself  to  all  weathers, 
and  walking  the  three  or  four  miles  that  separated  his 

1  In  1874  this  diary  was  still  in  the  possession  of  a  lady  in  Zurich, 
vho  was  good  enough  to  lend  it  to  Mr.  Morf,  for  his  important  book  on 
Testalozzi. 


32  PESTALOZZI:  HIS  LIFE  AND    WORK. 

home  from  his  land  at  all  hours,  and  often  many  times  in  tho 
day. 

Meanwhile  he  was  pleased  to  see  his  sainfoin  growing, 
and  took  keen  delight  in  every  addition  to  his  buildings, 
which  were  to  be  in  the  Italian  style,  and  which  he 
hurried  on  with  impatient  eagerness.  Unfortunately,  how- 
ever, he  had  chosen  for  his  steward  and  foreman  a  most 
unsuitable  man,  called  Merki,  in  whom  nobody  in  the  neigh- 
bourhood had  any  confidence,  and  who  gravely  compromised 
his  master's  interests.  Indeed  unpleasant  rumours  had 
already  reached  banker  Schulthess'  ears,  and  filled  him  with 
uneasiness  as  to  the  fate  of  his  money. 

Some  extracts  from  the  diary  will  give  a  clearer  idea  of 
the  state  of  affairs  in  the  spring  of  1770 : 

"  5th  March  (Anna). — I  have  been  to  see  the  land  with 
my  husband  and  my  brother  the  doctor.  For  the  first  time 
I  have  heard  an  adverse  judgment  on  my  dear  one's  under- 
takings. The  pastor  of  Birr  doubts  our  success.  This 
troubled  me  somewhat,  but  has  not  made  me  very  uneasy." 

"  2bth  April. — Arrival  of  Schulthess,  the  banker,  with 
his  two  sons.  This  visit  has  kept  me  employed  all  day.  It 
would  have  terminated  pleasantly  for  us  all  if  a  wretched 
servant  had  not  talked  despairingly  of  my  dear  husband's 
projects.  I  hope  the  latter  will  not  hear  of  it." 

"  3rd  May  (Festal ozzi). — At  nine  o'clock  a  letter  from 
Schulthess  saying  that  he  considers  my  undertaking  to  have 
failed.  My  dear  wife  comforts  and  encourages  me.  I 
rejoice  with  her  at  the  kindness  of  her  good  parents  who 
have  to-day  sent  us  another  ten  pounds." 

"  10th  May  (Anna). — To-day  I  have  made  up  my  house- 
keeping accounts.  I  find  our  expenses  are  greater  than  1 
expected  for  such  a  simple  life  as  ours.  For  seven  months 
they  come  to  thirty  pounds.  For  eight  weeks,  however,  we 
were  not  alone,  and  have  had  as  many  as  forty  people 
staying  with  us,  so  this  large  amount  is  not  very  sur- 
prising. Our  guests  were  all  relations  or  true  friends,  and 
not  one  of  them  but  was  very  dear  to  us  and  very  wel 
come." 

"  12th  May. — Meis  and  Schinz  (two  friends  of  Pestalozzi's) 
arrived  to  make  a  careful  survey  of  the  land.  They  came 
back  in  the  evening,  having  found  things  in  a  better  state 


PESTALOZZI  THE  AGRICULTURIST.  33 

than  they  expected.  The  next  morning  they  went  through  the 
accounts  with  my  husband.  In  the  evening  we  were  very 
sad,  for  we  could  not  help  thinking  that  Schulthess  meant 
to  forsake  us.  The  chief  cause  of  his  distrust  is  that  mis- 
chievous servant,  who  put  everything  before  him  in  the 
worst  light." 

"  Ylth  May. — Letter  from  Schulthess  announcing  the  dis- 
solution of  partnership.  We  shed  tears  when  we  thought 
that  this  might  lead  to  our  own  separation,  which  would  be 
worse ;  for  by  the  banker's  withdrawal  we  must  inevitably 
lose  credit.  I  thank  God  for  supporting  me  at  this  time, 
and  enabling  me  to  console  my  dear  husband,  who  was  in 
despair  at  the  thought  of  having  to  leave  me  in  poverty 
now  that  I  am  expecting  to  become  a  mother." 

The  husband  and  wife  now  went  to  Zurich,  where,  with 
the  help  of  their  relations  and  friends,  they  succeeded  in 
persuading  Schulthess  to  reconsider  his  decision.  The  part- 
nership therefore  continued. 

The  most  important  event  of  this  year,  and  the  one  that 
brought  the  greatest  joy  to  the  family  at  Muligen,  was  the 
birth  of  Pestalozzi's  son,  the  only  child  he  ever  had. 

A  few  days  previously,  Anna,  thinking  she  might  not  live 
wrote  to  her  parents : 

"  I  should  have  regret,  even  in  my  grave,  if  I  did  not 
leave  my  dear  parents  a  few  lines  saying  how  deeply  grate- 
ful I  have  always  felt  to  them,  especially  since  my  marriage. 
My  dear  parents,  it  is  certain  that  the  happiest  days  of  my 
life  have  been  passed  with  my  husband,  and  it  is  certain 
that  he  deserves  al.  your  love." 

Pestalozzi's  mother  came  and  nursed  her  daughter-in-law 
at  the  critical  moment.  Then  Anna's  mother  arrived,  and 
soon  afterwards  Pestalozzi's  sister  also  came  and  stayed 
with  them,  devoting  all  her  attention  to  the  baby,  who  was 
overwhelmed  with  small  presents  from  his  grandparents 
and  godparents.  Anna  wrote  in  her  diary : 

"  We  have  never  all  been  so  happy  together  as  during 
this  gathering ;  we  have  shed  many  tears  of  joy." 

In  the  spring  of  1771,  Pestalozzi  went  and  settled  with 
his  family  in  his  new  house  at  Letten,  called  Neuhof,  or 


34  PESTALOZZI:  HIS  LIFE  AND    WORK. 

New  Farm.  Only  the  ground  floor  was  as  yet  finished,  cir- 
cumstances being  against  the  completion  of  the  rest  of  tho 
original  plan. 

The  front,  which  had  six  windows  and  four  rooms,  looked 
south  on  to  the  garden.  The  house  was  burned  down  in 
1842;  but  though  the  walls  and  roof  have  since  been  restored, 
the  interior  has  remained  empty,  and  is  now  used  as  a  store- 
house. On  the  east  side  of  the  house  runs  a  road,  on  the 
right  of  which,  a  few  steps  south  of  the  house,  is  the  site  of 
the  farm-buildings,  which  have  also  been  destroyed  by  fire. 
In  front  of  the  farm  was  a  well,  and  on  the  other  side  of 
the  road  a  manure-heap  and  a  pond.  These  buildings 
formed  as  it  were  the  centre  of  a  large  extent  of  meadows 
and  fields,  with  a  few  vines  aj,  the  foot  of  the  hill,  and  a 
belt  of  trees  above. 

But  the  land  was  not  at  all  fertile,  a  few  days'  rain 
sufficing  to  lay  bare  a  thin  bed  of  sand,  and  so  Pestalozzi's 
agriculture  did  not  prosper. 

The  buildings,  too,  had  absorbed  all  the  funds  necessary 
for  working  the  land,  and  Pestalozzi's  steward,  Merki,  had 
been  guilty  of  breaches  of  trust.  Accordingly  Schulthess, 
the  banker,  with  some  slight  loss,  now  finally  withdrew 
from  the  undertaking. 

Pestalozzi,  reduced  to  his  own  slender  resources,  again 
found  in  his  wife's  devotion  the  comfort  and  encouragement 
he  so  much  needed.  She  induced  her  brothers  to  advance 
her  some  of  the  money  to  which  she  would  be  entitled  at 
her  father's  death,  and  with  this  money  she  paid  some  of 
Pestalozzi's  debts.  Pestalozzi's  mother  also  sent  him  what 
help  she  could.  He,  meanwhile,  had  discovered  the  existence 
of  marl  near  Birr,  and  used  it  to  improve  his  land  ;  he  sup- 
plemented his  unremunerative  farming-operations  by  the 
manufacture  of  cotton-stuffs,  and  spun  and  wove  the  raw 
n^terial  supplied  him  by  his  brothers-in-law. 

But  in  spite  of  all  his  efforts,  things  grew  worse  every 
day,  his  debts  continued  to  increase,  and  at  last,  in  1775, 
ho  himself  was  obliged  to  recognise  that  his  undertaking 
had  failed. 

"  The  dream  of  my  life,"  he  says,  "  the  hope  of  making  my 
house  the  centre  of  a  wide  sphere  of  benevolent  activity, 
was  gone." 


PESTALOZZI  THE  AGRICULTURIST.  35 

This  failure  is  hai'dly  to  be  wondered  at ;  and  yet  ex- 
perience has  since  confirmed  the  truth  and  value  of  the  ideas 
on  which  his  experiment  was  based  :  the  advantage,  for  in- 
stance, of  'large  market-gardens  in  the  neighbourhood  of 
towns,  the  great  waste  of  manure  in  populous  cities,  and  the 
possibility  of  enormously  increasing  the  productive  power  of 
land  by  improved  methods  of  cultivation.  And  what  Pesta- 
lozzi  could  not  accomplish  then,  others  have  accomplished 
since  ;  for  when  we  visited  Muligen  and  Neuhof  in  1869,  we 
found  this  very  same  land  in  a  state  of  most  rich  and  varied 
cultivation,  and  producing  several  crops  in  the  year.  Pesta- 
lozzi's  dream,  then,  of  a  hundred  years  ago  has  to-day  been 
realized.  It  must  not  be  forgotten,  however,  that  this 
agricultural  experiment  at  Neuhof  was  by  no  means  in 
accordance  with  the  plans  prepared  at  Kirchberg,  since 
Pestalozzi  had  not  been  able  to  combine  all  the  conditions 
on  which  he  had  counted,  of  which  nearness  to  Zurich  was 
one  of  the  most  important.  But  his  confidence  and  impatient 
ardour  brooked  no  delay,  and  he  set  about  putting  his  plan 
into  execution  long  before  he  had  made  sure  of  all  the 
means  necessary  for  its  success.  This,  unfortunately,  is  not 
the  only  occasion  on  which  he  had  to  suffer  for  this,  charac- 
teristic tendency  of  his  nature. 

For  a  man  in  his  position,  the  owner  of  Neuhof  now  took 
a  most  unaccountable  step.  His  agricultural  operations 
having  failed,  and  what  little  money  he  had  started  with 
being  as  good  as  lost,  he  decided  to  turn  his  house  into  a 
refuge  for  poor  children. 

It  has  been  said  that  had  this  not  been  an  act  of  such 
monstrous  folly,  it  would  have  been  an  instance  of  the  most 
sublime  self-sacrifice.     As  a  matter  of  fact,  it  was  nothing 
more  than  the  natural  effect  of  a  reaction  which  had  taken 
place  in  his  thought  and  conscience  since  he  had  become  a 
father,  a  reaction  which  we  must  now  endeavour  to  trace 
from  its  very  beginning,  since  it  resulted    in  Pestalozzi's  ] 
finding  his  true  vocation,  and  becoming  the  benefactor  of  j 
humanity.  / 


CHAPTER  IV. 

PESTALOZZI   THE  FATHER. 

[He  reproaches  himself  with  no  longer  thinking  of  anything 
but  the  temporal  interests  of  his  family.  The  birth  of  his 
son  fills  him  with  religious  remorse.  He  tries  to  bring  up 
his  child  according  to  the  principles  of  "Emile."  Obliged  at 
every  step  to  correct  Rousseau,  he  discovers  the  essential 
principles  of  his  own  method  ;  value  of  this  experiment  for 
humanity  ;  sad  fate  of  the  child  tvho  was  the  subject  of  it. 

IN  the  lives  of  young  men  there  is  often  a  period,  more  or 
or  less  transient,  of  passion  and  illusion,  that  carries  them 
into  paths  from  which  disappointments  and  the  experience 
of  the  realities  of  life  compel  them,  sooner  or  later,  to  turn 
aside.  It  was  in  this  way  that  Pestalozzi  first  threw  him- 
self into  politics  as  a  revolutionary,  and  then  into  agriculture 
as  an  innovator. 

This  latter  step  was  indeed  the  chief  folly  of  his  youth. 

Carried  away,  in  the  first  place,  by  the  Utopian  ideas  in 
vogue  in  university  circles  at  Zurich,  and  by  the  hope  of 
finding  in  agricultural  reform  a  means  of  improving  the  con- 
dition of  the  people,  and  afterwards  by  his  love  for  Anna, 
and  his  desire  to  reassure  her  parents  by  preparing  her  a 
comfortable  home,  he  gradually  allowed  a  sordid  ambition  to 
take  the  place  of  the  noble  philanthropic  enthusiasm  which 
had  hitherto  filled  his  heart. 

But  this  eclipse  of  his  great  thought  of  self-sacrifice  did 
not  last  very  long.  He  soon  found  himself  ill  at  ease  in  this 
atmosphere  of  material  interests  and  reproached  himself 
bitterly  with  having  forsaken  his  former  ideal.  He  was,  in 
short,  tormented  by  religious  remorse. 

The  disappointments  caused  by  the  failure  of  his  agri- 
cultural experiments  undoubtedly  helped  to  bring  about  thia 
moral  regeneration,  though  they  were  not  the  primary  cause 
of  it.  Indeed,  the  extracts  we  are  about  to  give  from  his 


PESTALOZZI   THE  FATHER.  37 

diary  show  that  the  crisis  began  at  a  time  when  Pestalozzi 
had  as  yet  no  reason  to  doubt  the  success  of  his  enterprise. 
Already,  on  the  9th  of  January,  1770,  he  wrote : 

"  Why  do  I  no  longer  take  pleasure  in  speculative  science? 
Why  am  I  so  little  interested  in  the  search  for  truths  of  the 
greatest  importance  ?  Can  it  be  because  the  vainglory  and 
examples  that  stimulated  me  in  the  town  are  now  lacking  to 
mo  ?  But  I  am  resolved  to  attend  earnestly  to  the  develop- 
ment of  my  faculties,  in  spite  of  the  distractions  necessarily 
resulting  from  the  work  my  position  involves.  0  God, 
strengthen  me  in  this  resolution !  " 

And  in  another  place : 

"  We  rose  late,  and  urgent  letters  absorbed  the  time  set 
apart  for  our  prayers,  with  which  we  ought  to  allow'nothing 
to  interfere.  I  have  been  very  busy  all  day,  and  have  been 
happier  than  on  those  days  when  I  have  less  to  do.  I  am 
ashamed  to  confess  this ;  it  shows  that  I  am  incapable  of 
giving  proper  attention  to  my  own  character.  After  writing 
the  foregoing,  I  set  to  work  to  amuse  myself;  but  I  soon 
stopped,  ashamed  of  my  levity.  Where  will  it  lead  me? 
What  will  it  bring  me  to  in  a  few  years  ?  " 

Shortly  after  this  his  wife  writes : 

"  I  am  taking  advantage  of  my  dear  husband's  absence  to 
look  back  over  my  life,  which  has  been  but  ill  employed  for 
some  time  past.  I  am  hoping  to  become  a  mother.  If  it 
should  please  God  to  let  my  child  and  me  live,  what  an 
awful  duty  is  before  me  !  But  if  I  am  to  die  .  .  .  Oh, 
merciful  Father!  shed  Thy  grace  and  blessing  upon  us, 
strengthen  and  purify  our  hearts  by  Thy  presence.  .  .  . 
At  last  my  husband  came  home.  He  asked  me  if  I  had 
prayed,  and  I  was  glad  to  see  how  happy  it  made  him  to 
hear  how  I  had  spent  the  day." 

These  few  quotations  will  suffice  to  show  that  only  a  few 
months  after  their  marriage,  Pestalozzi  and  his  wife  were 
already  blaming  themselves  for  allowing  material  interests 
to  shape  their  lives,  and  praying  for  help  in  their  efforts 
after  moral  improvement. 

When  Pestalozzi  became  a  father,  this  moral  crisis  took 


38  PESTALOZZf:   HIS  LIFE  AND    WORK. 

the  form  of  deep  religious  remorse.  Paternity,  with  its 
cares,  duties,  and  responsibilities,  places  men  in  a  new 
position,  a  position  particularly  calculated  to  make  them 
examine  their  lives,  and  to  bring  about  a  complete  moral 
and  religious  regeneration.  Though  a  man  may  have  been 
careless  about  himself,  he  will  be  anxious  to  keep  his  child 
from  sin,  knowing  well  enough  the  misery  it  produces  ;  and 
he  will  feel  the  need  of  making  himself  holy,  that  he  may 
be  able  to  teach  holiness  to  the  one  he  holds  so  dear. 

Pestalozzi's  entry  in  his  wife's  diary  soon  after  the  birth 
of  his  son,  is  as  follows : 

"  Ah,  God  !  I  saw  the  time  of  gravest  anxiety  approach- 
ing, yet  I  could  neither  pray  nor  weep ;  I  did  not  lift  up  my 
heart  to  God,  nor  did  1  fall  on  my  knees  to  bewail  my  faults, 
to  ask  pity,  to  pray  the  Lord  not  to  take  my  beloved  from 
me  because  of  my  sins,  nor  my  son  because  of  my  transgres- 
sions. My  heart  is  hardened,  alas !  I  have  no  desire  to  be 
better,  my  soul  is  full  of  wickedness !  " 

He  goes  on  for  a  long  time  like  this,  then  concludes  with 
St.  Paul's  cry :  "  Who  shall  deliver  me  from  the  body  of 
this  death  ?  " 

Farther  ori  he  says  again : 

"  I  was  always  busied  with  the  things  of  no  importance, 
and  took  no  trouble  to  make  my  soul  worthy  of  the  happiest 
day  of  my  life.  Alas  !  I  forgot  my  Lord  and  my  God,  and 
in  my  soul's  anxiety  addressed  no  prayer  to  Him  who  forms 
us  all  in  our  mothers'  wombs,  and  who  gives  us  breath  and 
life.  Forgive  me,  my  Father,  I  am  not  worthy  to  be  called 
Thy  son. 

"  Thou  hast  surrounded  me  with  blessings  beyond  measure ; 
Thou  hast  preserved  my  wife's  life  and  strength ;  Thou  hast 
made  me  the  father  of  an  immortal  soul.  Ah  !  if  I  could 
only  show  my  gratitude  for  Thy  goodness  by  my  repentance, 
repentance  for  a  long  life  of  sin  from  which  I  have  never 
once  turned  aside!  .  .  .  Send  me  Thy  Spirit  fiom  on 
high !  Give  me  now  new  strength,  create  in  me  a  new 
heart,  fresh  zeal !  Oh,  my  son,  my  son  !  Horrible  thought ! 
If  I  were  to  fail  in  my  duty  to  thee,  if  I  were  to  lead  thee 
astray  from  thy  proper  path,  thou  mightest  some  day  before 
the  Judge  be  the  accuser  of  thy  father,  of  him  whose  duty 


PESTALOZZI  THE  FATHER.  39 

it  was  to  lead  thee  aright !  It  would  be  better  for  me  never 
to  have  seen  thy  face,  and  to  have  been  cast  into  the  bottom 
of  the  sea.  God  preserve  me,  my  dear  child,  from  ever  sug- 
gesting any  wickedness  to  thy  soul." 

What  a  noble  sense  of  virtue  and  duty  breathes  through 
these  words !  How  sensitive  is  this  man's  conscience,  how 
sincere  and  thoroughly  religious  his  soul !  And  yet  in  these 
most  secret  outpourings  of  a  man  who  but  recently  was  oa 
the  point  of  becoming  a  minister  of  the  Gospel,  there  is  no 
mention  of  Jesus,  the  Saviour  of  men,  and  refuge  of  despair- 
ing souls  !  The  Christian  doctrine  of  the  Redemption  seems 
indeed,  to  find  no  place  in  this  soul,  filled,  nevertheless, 
with  the  most  Christian  love  and  repentance.  It  is  clear 
that  Pestalozzi  had  felt  the  influence  of  the  age  of  incred- 
ulity in  which  he  lived,  and  that  the  innocent  faith  of  his 
childhood  and  early  youth  had  suffered  somewhat  from  the 
sophisms  of  Rousseau. 

But  it  is  also  clear  that  a  reaction  has  set  in  and  that  it 
has  already  made  good  progress.  From  Jean- Jacques  to 
Pestalozzi,  what  a  distance  !  The  former  always  satisfied 
with  himself,  and  excusing  even  his  greatest  errors ;  the 
latter  bitterly  reproaching  himself  the  very  moment  that  he 
becomes  like  other  men,  and  gives  his  family's  temporal  in- 
terests the  first  place  in  his  activity  and  his  affections. 

This  new  religious  feeling,  the  first  symptoms  of  which 
we  have  already  called  attention  to,  became  much  more 
marked  after  the  birth  of  Pestalozzi's  son  ;  we  shall  now  see 
it  grow  still  more  with  his  efforts  to  bring  up  his  child  pro- 
perly, and  finally  develop  into  a  most  admirable  example  of 
Christian  self-sacrifice. 

In  her  book,  Progressive  Education,  Madame  Necker  de 
Saussure  expresses  surprise  that  amongst  the  number  of 
people  who  make  notes  on  all  sorts  of  subjects,  no  father 
should  ever  have  thought  of  making  notes  on  his  child's 
progress.  She  did  not  know  that  sixty  years  before,  this 
had  alroady  been  done  by  the  reformer  of  education.  Some 
parts  of  the  journal  in  which  Pestalozzi  wrote  his  observa- 
tions on  his  child  have  been  preserved  in  Niederer's  Notes 
on  Pestalozzi, published  at  Aix-la-Chapelle  in  1828. 

This  journal  is  as  important  as  it  is  interesting,  for  it 
shows  us  a  man  who,  starting  with  the  intention  of  apply- 


40  PESTALOZZI:  HIS  LIFE  AND    WORK. 

ing  Rousseau's  ideas  to  the  education  of  his  son  and  working 
lor  this  object  with  the.  most  scrupulous  and  unwavering 
care,  is  compelled  at  every  step  to  stop  and  fall  back  on  his 
own  observations  and  on  the  memory  of  his  mother's  teach- 
ing. When  we  reflect  that  Rousseau  had  neither  a  son  to 
educate  nor  a  mother  to  remember,  his  mistakes  will  no 
longer  surprise  us.  . 

The  journal  also  shows  us  the  gradual  development  of 
some  of  the  most  important  principles  of  Pestalozzi's  educa- 
tional method,  principles  which  were  chiefly  the  result  of  his 
own  experiments  and  reflections,  but  which  also  depended  to 
some  extent  on  the  reaction  which  was  taking  place  in  him 
against  Rousseau's  theories. 

The  name  of  Pestalozzi's  son  was  Jacob,  but  in  German 
fashion  he  was  generally  called  Jacobli.  When  the  follow- 
ing notes  were  written,  he  was  about  three  and  a  half  years 
old.  It  must  not  be  forgotten  that  at  this  time  Pestalozzi 
was  at  Neuhof,  and  still  busy  with  his  agricultural  opera- 
tions. 

"  January  21th,  1774. — I  called  his  attention  to  some 
running  water.  He  was  delighted,  and,  as  I  walked  on 
down  the  hill,  followed  me,  saying  to  the  water :  '  Wait  a 
moment ;  I  shall  be  back  directly.'  Presently  I  took  him  to 
the  side  of  the  same  stream  again.  '  Look,'  he  cried,  '  the 
water  comes  down  too  ;  it  runs  from  up  there  and  goes  lower 
and  lower.'  As  we  followed  the  course  of  the  stream,  I  re- 
peated several  times :  '  Water  flows  down  hill.' 

"  I  told  him  the  names  of  a  few  animals,  saying :  '  The 
dog,  the  cat,  etc.,  are  animals,  but  your  uncle,  John,  Nicholas, 
are  men.'  I  then  asked  him  :  '  What  is  a  cow,  a  sheep,  the 
minister,  a  goat,  your  cousin,  etc  ? '  and  he  answered  cor- 
rectly nearly  every  time,  his  wrong  answers  being  accom- 
panied by  a  sort  of  smile  which  seemed  to  say  that  he  did 
not  mean  to  answer  properly.  I  think  behind  this  fun  there 
must  be  a  desire  to  see  how  far  his  will  is  independent  of 
mine  ?  " 

"  January  29th. — I  succeeded  in  making  him  sit  for  a  long 
time  at  his  lessons,  after  having  first  made  him  run  and  play 
out  of  doors  in  the  cold.  I  can  see  that  a  man  must  be 
robust  himself  if  he  is  to  concern  himself  with  his  pupil's 
open-air  games." 


PESTALOZZI  THE  FATHER.  41 

"  January  30th. — He  was  soon  tired  of  learning  to  read, 
but  as  I  had  decided  that  he  should  work  at  it  regularly 
every  day,  whether  he  liked  it  or  not,  I  determined  to  make 
him  feel  the  necessity  of  doing  so,  from  the  very  first,  by 
showing  him  there  was  no  choice  between  this  work  and  my 
displeasure,  which  I  made  him  feel  by  keeping  him  in.  It 
was  only  after  having  been  punished  in  this  way  three  times 
that  he  at  last  conquered  his  impatience.  From  that  time 
he  did  his  work  willingly  and  cheerfully. 

"  I  showed  him  that  wood  swims  in  water  and  that  stones 
sink." 

"February  1st. — I  taught  him  the  Latin  names  for  the 
different  parts  of  the  head.  By  figures  and  examples,  I 
taught  him  the  meaning  of  such  words  as  inside,  outside, 
below,  above,  amid,  beside,  etc.  I  showed  him  how  snow 
became  water  when  brought  indoors. 

"  I  found  that  teaching  was  made  easier  by  changes  of  the 
voice,  that  is,  by  speaking  sometimes  loud,  sometimes  soft, 
and  by  constantly  varying  the  expression.  But  to  what 
might  this  not  lead? 

"  The  other  day  he  saw  the  butcher  kill  some  pigs,  and  in 
a  spirit  of  imitation  arranged  some  pieces  of  wood  and  pre- 
pared to  do  the  same.  At  this  moment  his  mother  called 
'Jacobli.'  'No,  no,'  he  replied,  'you  should  call  me 
Butcher  now  !": 

"  February  2nd. — I  tried  to  make  him  understand  the 
meaning  of  numbers.  At  present  he  only  knows  their  names, 
which  he  says  by  heart  without  attaching  any  precise  mean- 
ing to  them.  To  have  a  knowledge  of  words  with  no  dis- 
tinct idea  of  the  things  they  represent  enormously  increases 
the  difficulty  of  getting  at  the  truth.  The  most  ignorant 
man  would  have  been  struck  by  this  fact  if  he  had  been 
present  at  our  lesson.  The  child  has  been  in  the  habit  of 
associating  no  difference  of  meaning  with  the  various  names 
of  numbers  he  pronounces,  and  this  habit  has  made  him  so 
careless  and  inattentive  that  I  could  make  absolutely  no  im- 
pression on  him  to-day. 

"  Why  have  I  been  so  foolish  as  to  let  him  pronounce 
important  words  without  taking  care  at  the  same  time  to 
give  him  a  clear  idea  of  their  meaning  ?  Would  it  not  have 
been  more  natural  not  to  teach  him  to  say  '  three  '  till  he 
thoroughly  understood  the  meaning  of  '  two ',  and  is  it  not 
5 


42  PESTALOZZI:   HIS  LIFE  AND    WORK. 

in  this  way  that  children  should  be  taught  to  count  ?  Ah ! 
how  far  I  have  erred  from  Nature's  paths  in  trying  to  im- 
prove on  her  teaching !  May  I  never  lose  sight  of  these 
truths,  so  important  for  wisdom  and  virtue ! 

"Let  yourself  be  governed  by  the  child's  love  of  imita- 
tion! You  have  a  stove  in  your  room;  draw  it  for  him. 
Even  if  he  should  not  succeed  in  a  whole  year  in  reproduc- 
ing it  exactly,  he  will  at  any  rate  have  learned  to  sit  still 
and  work.  There  is  instruction  too,  and,  indeed,  amusement 
in  the  comparison  of  mathematical  figures  and  magnitudes. 
And  again,  to  have  one's  own  garden  and  grow  all  sorts  of 
plants ;  to  collect  butterflies  and  insects,  and  classify  them 
with  exactitude  and  perseverance.  .  .  .  What  a  pre- 
paration for  social  life !  What  a  safeguard  against  idleness 
and  stupidity !  And  how  far  all  this  is  from  our  ordinary 
education  which  is  so  little  suited  to  children,  who  should 
learn  to  read  first  in  the  book  of  Nature  ! 

"  I  could  only  get  him  to  read  with  difficulty ;  he  has  a 
thousand  ways  of  getting  out  of  it,  and  never  loses  an  oppor- 
,  tunity  of  doing  something  else.  When  he  wants  something 
he  cannot  get,  he  very  cleverly  pretends  that  what  he  wants 
would  help  him  in  his  lessons,  or  in  his  reading.  I  have 
been  much  struck  by  these  tricks  for  some  days  past ;  it  is 
clearly  my  duty  to  watch  them  with  the  greatest  care." 

"  February  3rd. — I  felt  again  to-day,  no  less  strongly  than 
yesterday,  what  a  vicious  system  ours  is  for  teaching  a  child 
to  count.  All  words  learned  without  thinking  produce 
almost  hopeless  confusion  in  our  minds,  but  how  clear  our 
knowledge  would  be,  if  we  could  receive  the  truth  without 
alloy  !  0  God  !  who  art  my  Father  and  the  Father  of  my 
child,  teach  me  to  understand  the  holy  natural  laws  by 
which  Thou  preparest  us  slowly  by  means  of  an  innumer- 
able variety  of  impressions  for  conceiving  exact  and  complete 
ideas,  of  which  words  are  but  the  signs. 

"  When  the  child  knows  the  signs  before  learning  to 
know  the  things  they  represent,  and  especially  when  he 
connects  false  ideas  with  them,  our  daily  lessons  and  con- 
versation do  but  fortify  and  increase  his  error  and  push 
him  the  further  along  a  wrong  path  without  our  even  sus- 
pecting it.  How  difficult  it  then  is  to  correct  the  evil, 
whereas,  by  proceeding  slowly  from  truth  to  truth,  we  should 
be  following  the  luminous  path  of  Nature." 


PESTALOZZI  THE  FATHER.  43 

"  February  4rth. — Since  yesterday  Jacobli  has  not  been 
well.  To-day  feverish  symptoms  frightened  us,  and  we  sent 
for  the  doctor.  We  had  much  difficulty  to  get  the  child  tc 
take  any  medicine.  The  doctor  suggested  that  we  should 
occasionally  make  him  drink  something  unpleasant,  but 
harmless,  when  quite  well,  in  order  that  he  might  get  so 
accustomed  to  it  that  when  really  ill  he  would  no  longer 
mind  it.  At  first  sight  this  seems  to  me  a  good  idea,  and 
I  should  be  inclined  to  extend  it  to  apply  to  education 
generally." 

"  February  13th. — Our  care  of  Jacobli  during  his  illness 
has  made  him  more  self-willed.  I  took  a  nut  from  him  to 
crack  it ;  he  thought  I  was  going  to  eat  it  and  yelled  with 
anger.  I  looked  at  him  coldly,  and  then,  without  a  word, 
took  a  second  nut  and  ate  them  both  before  his  eyes.  He 
did  not  stop  crying ;  I  held  him  a  looking-glass ;  he  rushed 
off  to  hide  himself. 

"  I  have  often  admired  the  simple  wisdom  of  our  servant 
Nicholas.  In  the  matter  of  education  I  am  usually  very 
anxious  to  learn  the  ideas  of  people  who  have  been  brought 
up  quite  naturally  and  without  restraint,  who  have  been 
taught  by  life  itself  and  not  by  lessons.  '  Nicholas,'  I  said, 
'  don't  you  think  Jacobli  has  a  good  memory  ?  '  '  Yes,'  he 
said ;  '  but  you  overload  it.'  This  was  just  what  I  had  often 
been  afraid  of.  '  But,'  I  said,  '  if  the  child  were  over- 
burdened, I  think  we  should  notice  it ;  he  would  lose  heart 
and  become  timid  and  restless,  at  the  very  first  symptoms  of 
which  I  should  of  course  stop.'  '  Ah,'  said  Nicholas,  '  then 
you  really  are  anxious  about  the  boy's  spirit  and  happiness  ? 
That  is  just  what  I  was  afraid  you  would  overlook.'  Bight, 
Nicholas !  No  education  would  be  worth  a  jot  that  resulted 
in  a  loss  of  manliness  and  lightness  of  heart.  So  long  as 
there  is  joy  in  the  child's  face,  ardour  and  enthusiasm  in  all 
his  games,  so  long  as  happiness  accompanies  most  of  his 
impressions,  there  is  nothing  to  fear.  Short  moments  of 
self-subjugation  quickly  followed  by  new  interests  and  new 
joys  do  not  dishearten. 

"To  see  peace  and  happiness  resulting  from  habits  of 
order  and  obedience  is  the  true  preparation  for  social  life. 

"  Father  or  schoolmaster,  avoid,  above  all  things,  hurry 
and  excitement ;  let  your  work  be  done  quietly  and  in 
order.  The  greatest  joys  are  often  the  result  of  long  and 


44  PESTALOZZI:   HIS  LIFE  AND    WORK. 

patient  investigation.  Do  not  let  your  own  knowledge 
weigh  too  heavily  on  the  child,  rather  let  truth  itself  speak 
to  him ;  never  tire  of  placing  before  his  eyes  whatever  is 
likely  to  instruct  him  or  assist  his  development.  Train  his 
eyes  and  ears,  but  seldom  ask  him  for  an  opinion.  As  a 
general  rule,  do  not  ask  him  to  judge  of  things  of  which  he 
is  not  in  immediate  need,  but  ask  him  for  his  judgment  only 
as  Nature  asks  you  for  yours.  She  does  not  ask  you  to  judge 
of  the  breadth  of  the  ditch  at  the  side  of  which  you  are 
walking,  she  only  shows  it  you  ;  but  what  she  does  ask  you 
to  judge  of  is  the  breadth  of  the  ditch  which  is  in  your  way 
and  which  you  have  to  cross.  Thus,  then,  whenever  you  have 
an  opportunity  of  making  your  child  apply  what  he  says,  it 
is  natural  and  useful  to  ask  his  opinion." 

"  February  \4th. — To-day  I  was  pleased  ;  he  was  quite 
willing  to  learn.  I  played  with  him, — was  horseman,  butcher, 
everything  he  wished. 

"  I  drew  a  few  straight  lines  for  him  to  copy.  Fiissli,  the 
painter,  said  to  me  :  '  Let  everything  you  do  be  complete  ; 
do  not  pass  from  A  to  B,  for  instance,  till  A  is  perfectly 
known.' 

"  Be  in  no  hurry  to  get  on,  but  make  the  first  step  sound 
before  moving ;  in  this  way  you  will  avoid  confusion  and 
waste.  Order,  exactness,  completion  ;  alas,  not  thus  was  my 
character  formed.  And  in  the  case  of  my  own  child  in 
particular,  I  am  in  great  danger  of  being  blinded  by  his 
quickness,  and  rapid  progress,  and,  dazzled  by  the  unusual 
extent  of  his  knowledge,  of  forgetting  how  much  ignor- 
ance lurks  behind  this  apparent  development,  and  how  much 
has  yet  to  be  done  before  we  can  go  farther.  Complete- 
ness, orderliness,  absence  of  confusion.  .  .  .  What 
important  points  ! 

"  Since  Nature  gives  us  our  first  language,  might  she  not 
give  us  ten  others  in  the  same  way  ?  I  am  beginning  to  see 
that  I  am  not  following  her  method  closely  enough  in  teach- 
ing Latin ;  I  must  try  to  get  into  the  way  of  always 
speaking  it.  But  in  this  respect  I  am  satisfied  with 
Jacobli's  progress/' 

"  February  15th. — I  have  noticed  to-day  that  my  child  has 
a  habit  which  shows  his  cleverness,  but  which  I  must  watch 
most  carefully.  When  he  asks  for  anything,  he  always 
begins  either  by  answering  objections  which  he  thinks 


PESTALOZZI  THE  FATHER.  45 

likely  to  be  made,  or  by  giving  reasons  why  the  request 
should  be  granted.  '  Mamma,  I  won't  break  it ;  I  only  want 
to  look  at  it ;  I  will  use  it  in  my  lessons;  I  only  want  one.' 
We  must  take  care  that  this  trick  does  not  succeed.  An 
open,  straightforward  request  is  what  we  should  like.  When 
he  asks  in  this  roundabout  way,  we  ought  to  insist  on  his 
making  his  request  again  in  a  simple  manner.  It  would 
perhaps  be  well  to  refuse  what  he  does  not  ask  for 
properly. 

"  Lead  your  child  out  into  Nature,  teach  him  on  the  hill- 
tops and  in  the  valleys.  There  he  will  listen  better,  and  the 
sense  of  freedom  will  give  him  more  strength  to  overcome 
difficulties.  But  in  these  hours  of  freedom  let  him  be 
taught  by  Nature  rather  than  by  you.  Let  him  fully  realize 
that  she  is  the  real  teacher  and  that  you,  with  your  art,  do 
nothing  more  than  walk  quietly  at  her  side.  Should  a  bird 
sing  or  an  insect  hum  on  a  leaf,  at  once  stop  your  talk  ;  bird 
and  insect  are  teaching  him ;  you  may  be  silent. 

"  But  in  those  few  hours  of  study  devoted  to  the  steady 
acquirement  of  necessary  knowledge,  you  must  suffer  no 
interruption.  Let  such  hours  be  few,  but  let  them  be 
inviolable.  The  least  irregularity  in  this  respect  must  be 
immediately  corrected.  Make  it  impossible  for  the  child  to 
have  the  faintest  hope  of  being  able  to  escape  this  duty. 
Such  a  hope  would  encourage  restlessness,  whereas  the  cer- 
tainty that  there  is  no  escape  will  cause  even  the  desire  to 
escape  to  be  forgotten.  In  this  case,  indeed,  Nature  must  no 
longer  be  listened  to,  and  the  child's  desire  for  freedom  must 
be  resisted. 

"  A  father  who  guides  wisely  and  blames  justly  must  be 
obeyed  by  his  child,  but  no  unnecessaiy  command  must  be 
given.  Never  let  your  orders  be  the  result  of  caprice,  or 
vanity,  or  a  partiality  for  knowledge  which  is  not  essential. 
To  ensure  obedience  it  is  most  important  that  children  should 
know  exactly  what  is  forbidden.  Nothing  produces  so  much 
bitter  feeling  as  the  punishment  of  ignorance  as  a  fault. 
If  you  punish  an  innocent  child  you  lose  your  hold  on  his 
heart.  We  must  not  imagine  that  a  child  knows  by  instinct 
what  is  harmful  and  what  things  are  held  to  be  important. 

"  Plenty  of  joy  and  liberty,  with  a  few  periods  of  restraint, 
during  which  the  child  has  to  fight  against  and  subdue  his 
natural  desires,  will  give  strength  and  the  power  of  endur- 


46  PESTALOZZI:   HIS  LIFE  AND    WORK. 

ance.  Too  much  restraint  would  have  a  disheartening 
effect,  and  joys  coming  more  rarely  would  no  longer  have 
the  same  happy  influence.  The  character  is  formed  by  the 
strongest  and  most  frequent  impressions,  all  others  are  com- 
paratively powerless.  That  is  why  it  is  possible  for 
education  to  correct  defects,  and  why  the  maxim  is  no 
less  false  than  discouraging  which  'says  that  a  few  chance 
impressions  suffice  to  undo  the  work  of  the  most  careful 
educator. 

"  Jacobli  has  been  self-willed  and  violent;  I  have  been 
obliged  to  punish  him  several  times  to-day." 

"  February  IQth  and  11th. — To  cure  his  stubbornness  and 
avoid  the  daily  renewal  of  the  same  rebukes,  which,  un- 
fortunately, is  beginning  to  be  necessary,  I  must  be  more 
careful  to  alternate  his  lessons  with  his  games,  and  not 
curtail  his  liberty  unnecessarily ;  I  must  also  decide  defi- 
nitely exactly  how  much  time  is  to  be  set  apart  for  actual 
study,  so  that  nothing  he  learns  at  other  times  may  seem 
like  work. 

"  I  have  taught  him  to  hold  his  pencil.  Although  this  is 
a  very  small  matter^  I  will  never  let  him  hold  it  badly 
again." 

"  February  18th. — To-day  I  have  been  walking  with  him 
a  great  deal.  How  little  I  am  yet  able  to  take  advantage 
of  circumstances  which  might  help  to  teach  some  useful 
lesson ! 

"  My  wife  met  the  carpenter  and  asked  for  the  payment 
of  a  debt.  '  Mamma,'  cried  Jacobli,  '  don't  vex  the  car- 
penter.' " 

"February  19th. — I  find  myself  sometimes  embarrassed 
through  having  given  up,  with  all  other  pedantries,  the 
master's  tone  of  authority.  Where  shall  I  draw  the  line  be- 
tween liberty  and  obedience,  that  social  life  so  soon  compels 
us  tc  draw  ? 

"REASONS  FOR  LIBERTY. 

1  It  is  impossible  to  curtail  a  child's  liberty  without,  to 
some  extent,  incurring  his  dislike. 

"  Experience  proves  that  children  who  have  been  too 
much  under  restraint,  make  up  for  it  later  by  excesses  in. 
the  opposite  direction. 

"  Restraint  excites  various  passions. 


PESTALOZZI  THE  FATHER.  47 

"A  wise  liberty  induces  the  child  to  keep  his  eyes  and 
ears  open,  and  makes  him  contented,  happy,  and  even- 
tempered. 

"  But  this  complete  liberty  supposes  a  preliminary  edu- 
cation, which  has  taught  the  child  submission  to  the  nature 
of  things,  though  not  to  the  will  of  man. 

"REASONS  FOR  OBEDIENCE. 

"  Without  it  there  is  no  education  possible.  There  are 
crises,  indeed,  when  the  child  would  be  ruined  by  being 
allowed  his  liberty.  Even  under  the  most  favourable  cir- 
cumstances it  is  impossible  not  to  thwart  his  will  occasion- 
ally. 

"  Liberty  does  not  stifle  the  passions,  it  only  delays  their 
development.  It  is  vanity,  for  instance,  that  makes  Ernile 
tremble  in  his  desire  to  excel  the  juggler.  And  does  not 
Rousseau  himself  recognise  the  state  of  dependence  in  which 
society  places  us,  when  he  says  that  there  are  some  men  of 
such  passionate  natures  that  they  would  certainly  have  to 
be  subjected  to  restraint  in  their  youth,  if  their  childhood 
had  been  left  entirely  free. 

"  Social  life  demands  such  talents  and  habits  as  it  is  not 
possible  to  form  without  restraining  the  child's  liberty. 

"  Which  of  these  is  the  true  position  and  which  the  false  ? 
Liberty  is  good,  and  so  is  obedience.  We  must  reconcile 
what  Rousseau  separated  when,  struck  by  the  evils  of  the 
unwise  restraint  that  only  tends  to  degrade  humanity,  he 
advocated  unbounded  liberty. 

"  Let  us  endeavour  to  see  how  far  he  was  right,  and  profit 
by  his  wisdom. 

"  I  would  say  to  the  teacher :  Be  thoroughly  convinced  of 
the  immense  value  of  liberty ;  do  not  let  vanity  make  you 
anxious  to  see  your  efforts  producing  premature  fruit ;  let 
your  child  be  as  free  as  possible,  and  seek  diligently  for 
every  means  of  ensuring  his  liberty,  peace  of  mind,  and 
good  humour.  Teach  him  absolutely  nothing  by  words  that 
you  can  teach  him  by  the  things  themselves  ;  let  him  see 
for  himself,  hear,  find  out,  fall,  pick  himself  up,  make  mis- 
takes ;  no  word,  in  short,  when  action  is  possible.  What 
he  can  do  for  himself,  let  him  do  it ;  let  him  be  always 
occupied,  always  active,  and  let  the  time  you  leave  him  to 


48  PESTALOZZI:  HIS  LIFE  AND    WORK. 

himself  represent  by  far  the  greatest  part  of  his  childhood. 
You  will  then  see  that  Nature  teaches  him  better  than  men. 

"  But  when  you  see-  the  necessity  of  accustoming  him  to 
obedience,  prepare  yourself  with  the  greatest  care  for  this 
duty,  the  most  difficult  of  all  in  such  an  education  as  we 
are  considering.  Remember  that  if  restraint  robs  you  of 
your  pupil's  confidence,  all  your  labour  is  lost.  Make  sure, 
then,  of  his  heart,  and  let  him  feel  that  you  are  necessary  to 
him.  Be  merrier  and  pleasanter  than  any  of  his  companions  ; 
in  his  games  let  him  prefer  you  to  all  the  rest. 

"  He  must  trust  you.  If  he  often  asks  for  something  you 
do  not  think  good,  tell  him  what  the  consequences  will  be, 
and  leave  him  his  liberty.  But  you  must  take  care  that  the 
consequences  are  such  as  he  will  not  easily  forget,  Always 
show  him  the  right  way.  Should  he  leave  it  and  fall  into 
the  mire,  go  to  his  rescue,  but  do  not  shield  him  from  the 
unpleasant  results  of  having  enjoyed  complete  liberty,  and 
of  not  having  listened  to  your  warnings.  In  this  way  his 
trust  in  you  will  be  so  great  that  it  will  not  be  shaken  even 
when  you  have  to  thwart  him.  He  must  obey  the  wise 
teacher  or  the  father  he  has  learned  to  respect ;  but  only  in 
cases  of  necessity  must  an  order  be  given." 

We  have  quoted  from  the  journal  at  this  length,  because 
it  has  such  direct  bearing  on  the  history  of  that  great  edu- 
cational reform  which  began  a  hundred  years  ago,  and  which, 
partly  in  accordance  with  Rousseau's  ideas,  partly  in  oppo- 
sition to  them,  is  still  going  on. 

In  the  extracts  we  have  given,  we  see  Pestalozzi  not  only 
finding  out  the  defects  of  Rousseau's  system,  but  discovering 
some  of  the  principles  which  he  was  afterwards  to  develop 
for  the  good  of  humanity. 

And  yet  this  gentle  and  clear-sighted  father,  always 
nnder  the  charm  of  the  eloquent  author  of  Emile,  often 
forgets  his  own  principles  and  falls  back  into  the  very 
errors  he  condemns. 

The  poor  child,  who  was  the  subject  of  all  these,  experi- 
ments, and  to  whom  we  perhaps  owe  the  Pestalozzian  method, 
paid  dearly  for  them.  The  system  of  the  Genevan  Philoso- 
pher continued  to  predominate  in  his  education  till  the  year 
1775,  but  after  that  time  his  teaching  became  subordinate 
to  the  needs  of  a  new  enterprise  which  absorbed  all  his 


PESTALOZZI  THE   FATHER.  49 

father's  time  and  strength,  and  for  the  next  five  years  he 
was  simply  the  companion  of  the  little  ragged  children,  of 
whom  we  shall  read  in  the  next  chapter. 

In  1782,  in  a  periodical  he  was  then  editing,  Pestalozzi 
wrote  as  follows : 

"  My  son  is  more  than  eleven  years  old  and  cannot  yet 
read  or  write  ;  but  this  does  not  at  all  trouble  me. 

"The  other  day  when  he  was  playing  alone  near  his 
mother,  she  said  to  him :  '  To-morrow  is  papa's  birthday  ; 
wouldn't  you  like  to  do  something  for  him  ?  '  '  Yes,  if  I 
could  write,'  answered  the  child.  '  If  you  will  say  some- 
thing, I  will  write  it  for  you,'  said  his  mother.  Whereupon 
he  began  to  think,  running  up  and  down  the  room  and  mut- 
tering, almost  singing,  to  himself  what  he  wanted  to  say. 
Before  very  long  he  came  and  smiled  at  his  mother.  '  What 
do  you  want,  my  dear  child  ?  '  '  Ah,  you  know  very  well.' 
'  Have  you  something  to  say  to  me  for  papa  ?  '  '  Yes,  if  you 
will  write  it  down.' 

His  mother  then  wrote  down  word  for  word  the  following 
lines,  which  the  child  dictated  in  a  chanting  voice,  explaining 
that  it  was  poetry  : 

My  wish,  dear  papa,  for  your  birthday  to-day, 

Is  that  you  may  live  a  long,  long  time  ; 

I  thank  you  a  thousand  times  for  all  your  kindnesses, 

I  thank  you  for  having  brought  me  up  tenderly  and  happily, 

I  thank  you  again  a  thousand  times  for  the  kindnesses 

Which  I  have  received  from  you  all  the  days  of  my  life. 

Thank  you  a  thousand,  thousand  times  ! 

I  don't  know  how  often  I  should  like  to  thank  you  1 

Now  I  will  tell  you  what  is  in  my  heart : 

I  shall  rejoice,  I  shall  rejoice  terribly 

When  you  can  say  :  I  have  brought  up  my  son  in  happiness  ; 

I  shall  rejoice,  I  shall  rejoice  with  my  whole  heart 

When  I  can  say :  I  am  his  joy  and  his  happiness. 

Then  only  shall  I  be  able  to  thank  you 

For  all  you  have  done  for  me  during  my  life. 

Yon  will  be  glad  as  well  as  I, 

The  clay  I  can  say  it. 

Then  we  will  be  happy  together  all  our  lives, 

Then  we  will  pray  to  God  together. 

And  dear  inamma  will  also  pray  with  us. 

Then  we  will  work  together  like  lambs, 

That  we  may  live  with  God  and  with  honour, 

And  that  we  may  be  content  with  what  God  gives  as. 


50  PESTALOZZI:  HIS  LIFE  AND    WORK. 

Now  dear  papa  is  coming  ; 

We  shall  love  and  kiss  each  other, 

And  mamma  too. 

I  want  to  put  my  arms  round  their  two  necks  at  once. 

/  This  child,  whose  emotional  side,  in  spite  of  Rousseau, 
/was  so  highly  developed,  but  who  had  received  so  little 
[  preparation  for  practical  life,  was,  at  the  age  of  fourteen, 
\  placed  in  a  school  at  Colmar.  His  father's  first  letter  to 
•  him,  dated  January  16th,  1784,  runs  as  follows  : 

"  We  now  send  you,  my  dear  Jacobli,  what  we  had  ready ; 
you  shall  have  more  in  a  few  days.  We  are  not  troubled  by 
your  going  away,  for  both  mamma  and  I  pray  God  that  you 
may  become  worthy  of  all  the  goodness  and  affection  that 
have  been  shown  to  you. 

"  In  God's  name,  Jacobli,  pray  and  work.  Be  diligent, 
thoughtful,  quiet,  clean,  and  obedient.  Forget  the  coarse 
manners  of  the  peasants,  and  learn  to  do  everything  properly. 
You  have  the  opportunity  now,  and  you  must  take  advantage 
of  it,  for  it  will  never  return.  But  I  hope  God  will  not  let 
you  sadden  by  your  disobedience  those  to  whom  you  owe 
so  much. 

"  My  child,  you  are  all  I  have  in  the  world  ;  it  is  for  you 
alone  that  I  care  to  live ;  it  is  for  you  that  I  have  suffered 
more,  so  to  speak,  than  I  could  bear.  It  is  in  your  hands 
now  either  to  reward  me  with  the  deepest  joy,  or  to  render 
my  life  for  ever  unhappy.  For  that  is  what  will  certainly 
happen  if  you  do  not  diligently  and  zealously  prepare  for 
some  suitable  career,  if  you  do  not  show  the  good  effects  of 
the  kindness  and  consideration  with  which  I  have  always 
treated  you,  if  you  are  not  better  than  boys  brought  up  with 
restraint  and  severity." 

Jacobli  was  afterwards  apprenticed  to  a  commercial  firm 
in  Basle,  the  head  of  the  firm  being  Felix  Battier,  who 
was  a  friend  of  Pestalo'zzi's,  and  to  whom,  in  1787,  he  dedi- 
cated the  fourth  part  of  Leonard  and  Gertrude.  But  the 
boy  did  not  succeed  "either  in  his  studies  or  his  apprentice- 
ship. At  Basle,  moreover,  symptoms  of  ill-health  began  to 
show  themselves,  and  in  1790  he  returned  to  Neuhof,  where, 
in  1791,  he  married  Anna  Madeline  Froehlich,  of  Brugg.  the 
daughter  of  the  owner  of  Muligen.  Their  three  first  child- 


PESTALOZZI  THE  FATHER. 


ren  died  in  infancy,  but  Gottlieb,  born  in  1797,  lived  till 
1863,  and  was  the  father  of  Colonel  Pestalozzi,  who  is  now 
a  professor  in  the  Polytechnic  School  at  Zurich. 

After  his  return  to  Neuhof,  Jacobli  suffered  severely  from 
rheumatism,  his  condition  in  1797  becoming  so  grave  that 
it  was  thought  he  was  dying.  He  lingered  on  till  1800  how- 
ever, in  great  pain,  and  with  one  side  entirely  paralysed, 
his  wife  and  parents  and  the  faithful  Elizabeth  l  doing  their 
utmost  to  alleviate  his  sufferings.  His  mother,  who  hap- 
pened not  to  be  with  him  when  he  died,  made  the  following 
entry  in  her  diary  : 

"  It  pleased  God  to  take  him  to  Himself  by  a  painless  death. 
May  God's  peace  be  on  him  in  the  grave,  and  may  the  Divine 
pity  welcome  his  soul.  May  God  grant  you,  good  and  dear 
child,  a  rich  compensation  for  all  the  pain  you  have  endured, 
and  may  we,  who  have  loved  you  so  well,  not  be  long  before 
we  join  you.  .  .  .  Yet  God  granted  me  the  joy  of  seeing 
him  once  more  at  rest.  As  he  lay  in  death  the  beautiful 
expression  of  his  mouth  showed  that  he  had  been  received 
like  an  angel  into  heaven.  Are  not  our  prayers  and  eternal 
gratitude  owing  to  God  for  His  goodness  ?  " 

In  the  happy  days  of  his  childhood,  Jacobli  had  planted  a 
lime-tree  near  the  south-west  corner  of  the  house,  and  for 
many  years  after  his  death  his  parents  tended  it  with  loving 
care.  It  has  now  been  long  neglected,  but  it  is  a  big,  thriv- 
ing tree,  that  the  visitor  to  Neuhof  loves  to  contemplate  in 
memory  of  the  poor  child  at  whose  expense  the  experiment 
was  made  which  has  conferred  such  benefits  upon  humanity. 


1  An  account  of  this  heroic  woman  will  be  found  at  the  end  of  the  next 
chapter. 


CHAPTER  V. 

PESTALOZZI   THE   PHILANTHROPIST. 

He  receives  into  his  house  twenty-fire  poor  children;  great 
success  of  his  first  attempt.  Iselin  makes  his  enterprise 
known,  and  recommends  it  to  the  public.  Donations  en- 
able him  to  increase  the  number  of  children  to  eighty. 
Troubles  caused  by  the  unreasonableness  of  the  parents  ; 
great  losses,  followed  by  complete  ruin.  In  ill-health,  and 
entirely  without  resources,  he  is  saved  by  the  devotion  of  a 
poor  servant. 

WE  have  seen  how  Pestalozzi,  on  becoming  a  father,  was 
filled  with  remorse  for  having  forgotten  the  cause  of  the 
people  in  his  care  for  the  material  interests  of  his  own 
family,  and  how  he  made  up  his  mind  afresh  to  devote 
himself  to  that  work  of  patriotic  philanthropy  which  had 
so  forcibly  appealed  to  him  when  he  was  still  but  a  youth. 
We  have  seen,  too,  how  his  thoughtful  experiments  with 
his  son  had  suggested  new  ideas  and  new  principles  of 
education  which  seemed  to  him  to  be  particularly  fitted  for 
the  regeneration  of  poor  children. 

Struck  by  the  child's  natural  need  of  continual  activity, 
and  by  the  abundance  and  versatility  of  its  physical,  intel- 
lectual and  moral  faculties,  it  occurred  to  him  that  by 
guiding  all  these  powers  aright,  and  by  varying  work  in 
such  a  way  as  to  prevent  fatigue,  it  would  be  possible  not 
only  to  teach  children  to  earn  their  bread,  but  to  cultivate 
their  intellectual  and  moral  nature  at  the  same  time.  He 
thought,  too,  that  a  country  life,  in  which  the  cultivation 
of  the  land  was  combined  with  some  sort  of  handicraft, 
would  provide  the  best  means  for  teaching  the  poorest  chil- 
dren that  by  their  own  strength,  and  with  God's  help,  they 
are  capable  not  only  of  satisfying  their  own  wants,  but 
of  contributing  to  the  happiness  of  their  family  and  country. 


PESTALOZZI  TH£  PHILANTHROPIST.  53 

"  It  is  not  enough,"  he  would  say,  "  for  them  to  repeat 
by  heart  that  man  was  created  in  God's  image,  and  that 
he  must  live  and  die  as  a  child  of  God,  but  they  must  feel 
this  truth  in  their  hearts  with  such  divine  force  as  to  rise 
not  merely  above  the  ox  that  ploughs,  but  above  the  man 
clothed  in  silk  and  purple  who  lives  unworthily  of  his  high 
destiny." 

In  his  eyes,  this  was  the  only  way  of  relieving  the  distress 
of  the  people  ;  in  all  charitable  institutions,  which  accustom 
the  poor  to  eat  bread  they  have  not  earned,  he  saw  nothing 
but  temporary  remedies,  which,  in  the  end,  do  but  aggravate 
the  evil. 

He  held  these  convictions  so  strongly,  and  his  desire  to 
improve  the  condition  of  the  people  was  so  real,  that  he 
decided  to  carry  out  an  experiment  in  his  own  house  and  on 
his  own  land,  hoping  in  this  way  to  make  Neuhof  the  model 
and  centre  of  this  great  work  of  regeneration. 

Having  failed  in  his  attempts  to  grow  madder,  and  also 
in  his  attempts  to  establish  a  cheese-dairy,  for  which  purpose 
he  had  laid  down  a  considerable  quantity  of  pasture-land, 
he  had  found  it  necessary  to  conduct  his  operations  on  a  scale 
more  consistent  with  his  reduced  means.  But  he  still  owed 
some  four  hundred  pounds  of  the  purchase  money,  and  had 
not  only  to  complete  his  buildings,  but  to  carry  out  the 
various  improvements  he  had  begun  on  the  land. 

He  had  tried  the  system  of  paid  workmen,  but  with  very 
unsatisfactory  results ;  he  found  that  they  seldom  worked 
with  a  will,  that  they  nearly  always  had  inveterate  vices, 
and  hopelessly  bad  methods  ;  he  hoped  more,  however,  from 
the  children,  who,  brought  up  under  his  own  roof,  would 
owe  him  everything. 

He  was  determined  then,  at  all  costs,  to  undertake  this 
new  work.  Many  years  afterwards,  in  the  Song  of  the  Sioan, 
he  spoke  of  his  determination  in  these  words  : 

'  Our  position  entailed  much  suffering  on  my  wife,  but 
nothing  could  shake  us  in  our  resolve  to  devote  our  time, 
strength,  and  remaining  fortune  to  the  simplification  of  the 
instruction  and  domestic  education  of  the  people." 

In  the  winter  of  1774  the  experiment  began,  and  several 


54  PESTALOZZ1:    HIS  'LIFE  AND    WORK. 

children,  some  from  the  neighbouring  villages,  some  mere 
vagrants  from  the  roadside,  went  to  live  at  Neuhof  with 
Pestalozzi,  who  clothed  them,  fed  them,  and  treated  them 
in  every  way  as  his  own.  They  were  always  with  him, 
sharing  in  the  work  of  the  garden,  the  fields,  and  the  house, 
and  in  bad  weather  spinning  cotton  in  a  large  out-house. 
Very  little  time  was  given  to  actual  lessons ;  indeed  the  chil- 
dren were  often  taught  while  working  with  their  hands, 
Pestalozzi  being  in  no  hurry  to  teach  them  to  read  and  write, 
convinced  as  he  was  that  this  is  only  useful  for  those  who 
have  learned  to  talk.  He  gave  them  constant  practice  in 
conversation,  however,  on  subjects  taken  from  their  everyday 
life,  and  made  them  repeat  passages  from  the  Bible  till  they 
knew  them  by  heart. 

This  first  experiment,  which  was  made  with  not  more  than 
twenty  children,  was  apparently  a  complete  success.  In  a 
few  months  the  appearance  of  the  poor  little  creatures  had 
entirely  changed;  notwithstanding  the  extreme  simplicity 
of  their  fare,  they  looked  strong  and  robust,  and  their  faces 
wore  an  expression  of  cheerfulness,  frankness,  and  intelli- 
gence, which,  when  they  first  arrived,  had  been  entirely 
wanting.  They  made  considerable  progress  with  their 
manual  work,  as  well  as  with  the  lessons  that  were  joined 
to  it,  taking  great  pleasure  in  both.  All  they  did  and  said, 
moreover,  seemed  to  express  their  appreciation  of  their  bene- 
factor's kind  care  for  them. 

In  this  way  the  year  1775  passed.  But  the  experiment, 
modest  as  it  was,  was  far  beyond  Pestalozzi's  means,  nor 
did  the  work  of  the  children  in  any  way  suffice  for  the  proper 
cultivation  of  his  land.  Many  more  were  anxious  to  come, 
it  is  true,  and  Pestalozzi  longed  to  receive  them,  but  he 
could  not  do  so  without  new  domestic  arrangements  and 
increased  expense. 

This  experiment  at  Neuhof  had  been  talked  of  far  and 
wide,  and  had  excited  the  interest  and  admiration  of  all  such 
men  as  were  capable  of  appreciating  the  beautiful  and  noble 
thought  that  had  suggested  it.  Money  was  offered  to  Pesta- 
lozzi to  carry  it  on  with,  and  he  was  advised  to  appeal  to  the 
friends  of  humanity  for  help  to  extend  his  undertaking,  and 
so  make  it  a  complete  success. 

This  advice  he  was  not  slow  to  follow,  and  in  the  begin- 
ning of  1770  his  appeal  appeared  in  the  weekly  paper,  pub- 


PESTALOZZI  THE  PHILANTHROPIST.  55 

listed  by  Iselin  of  Basle,  entitled,  EpJiemerides  of  Humanity 
(p.  293).     It  ran  thus : 

Appeal  to  the  friends  and  benefactors  of  humanity  to 
support  an  institution  intended  to  provide  education 
and  work  for  poor  country  children. 

"  I  appeal  to  the  friends  and  benefactors  of  humanity  to 
help  me  to  maintain  an  institution  which  I  can  no  longer 
maintain  alone. 

"  I  have  for  a  long  time  thought  it  probable  that,  under 
favourable  circumstances,  young  children  might  be  able  to 
earn  their  own  living  without  undue  labour,  provided  that 
enough  capital  were  advanced  to  organize  an  establishment, 
in  which  they  would  not  only  live,  but  at  the  same  time  re- 
ceive a  certain  elementary  education.  I  consider  that  any 
careful  experiment  in  this  direction  would  be  of  the  highest 
importance  for  humanity. 

"  In  the  poor  district  in  which  I  live,  I  have  been  struck 
by  the  misery  of  children  placed  with  peasants  by  the  parish. 
I  have  seen  them  crushed  by  hard  selfishness,  and  left  for  the 
most  part  without  spirit  or  energy,  I  might  almost  say  with- 
out life  in  body  or  soul,  and  I  have  seen  them  grow  up 
entirely  devoid  of  those  feelings  and  powers  that  make  useful 
and  upright  men.  As  the  situation  of  my  property  near 
Koenigsfelden  seemed  favourable  for  the  purpose,  I  felt  irre- 
sistibly impelled  to  put  my  idea  into  execution.  I  thought 
at  first  that  my  means  would  be  sufficient,  but  I  find  now 
that  they  are  not.  Still,  more  than  a  year's  experiment  has 
convinced  me  that  now  that  the  first  difficulties  have  been 
surmounted,  there  is  nothing  to  prevent  my  plan  being 
carried  to  a  successful  issue. 

"  I  have  proved  that  children  will  thrive  and  grow  on  the 
very  simplest  diet,  if  properly  varied  ;  such,  for  instance,  as 
potatoes  or  other  vegetables,  and  a  little  bread. 

"  I  have  proved  that  it  is  not  regular  work  that  stops  the 
development  of  so  many  poor  children,  but  the  turmoil  and 
irregularity  of  their  lives,  the  privations  they  endure,  the 
excesses  they  indulge  in  when  the  opportunity  offers,  the 
wild  rebellious  passions  so  seldom  restrained,  and'the  hope- 
lessness to  which  they  are  so  often  a  prey. 

"I  have  proved  that  children,  after  having  lost  health, 
strength,  and  courage  in  a  life  of  idleness  and  mendicity, 


56  PESTALOZZI:   HIS  LIFE  AND    WORK. 

have,  when  once  set  to  regular  work,  quickly  recovered  their 
health  and  spirits,  and  grown  rapidly.  Such  is  the  effect 
of  altered  circumstances,  and  the  absence  of  disquieting 
influences. 

"  I  have  found  that  when  taken  out  of  their  abject  con- 
dition, they  soon  become  kindly,  trustful,  and  sympathetic ; 
that  even  the  most  degraded  of  them  are  touched  by  kindness, 
and  that  the  eyes  of  the  child  who  has  been  steeped  in 
misery,  grow  bright  with  pleasure  and  surpiise,  when,  after 
years  of  hardship,  he  sees  a  gentle  friendly  hand  stretched  out 
to  help  him ;  and  I  am  convinced  that  when  a  child's  heart 
is  thus  touched,  his  whole  moral  nature  is  the  better  for  it. 

"  I  have  found,  too,  that  living  together  in  a  well-managed 
house  not  only  lessens  the  expense  of  supporting  these 
children,  but  increases  their  zeal  for  work,  and  encourages 
their  proper  development. 

"  Had  I  but  had  the  necessary  means,  I  do  not  doubt  but 
that  I  should  have  succeeded  in  my  object  and  attained  these 
two  great  and  useful  results :  instruction  adapted  to  the 
limited  needs  of  ordinary  workmen,  and  the  rescue  of  chil- 
dren from  the  very  lowest  conditions  of  humanity.  The  boy 
who  only  grows  up  into  a  vagabond,  perhaps  a  criminal ; 
the  girl,  who,  without  guide  or  support,  prepares  for  herself 
a  life  of  misery  and  dishonour;  all,  in  short,  who  would 
almost  inevitably  be  lost  both  for  themselves  and  their 
country,  these  are  they  whom  I  was  anxious  to  save,  and 
whom  I  wished  to  prepare  by  education  for  a  useful  and 
active  life. 

"  From  an  economical  point  of  view,  and  in  many  other 
respects,  the  position  of  my  house  and  land  seems  admirably 
adapted  for  the  purpose ;  but  to  this  simple  and  feasible 
scheme  of  agricultural  education  I  unfortunately  joined 
a  great  industrial  and  commercial  experiment,  and  with 
culpable  thoughtlessness,  entered  on  paths  entirely  unknown 
to  me,  and  engaged  in  undertakings  of  too  varied  and  com- 
plicated a  character.  These  experiments  did  not  answer 
my  expectations,  and  I  found  myself  suddenly  deprived  of 
resources  on  which  I  had  thought  I  could  depend,  and  in 
imminent  danger  of  ruin.  I  had  therefore  to  abandon  com- 
merce and  industry,  and  return,  not  too  late  I  hope,  to  my 
original  idea  of  simply  educating  children. 

"  But  to-day  I  can  no  longer  do  even  that  without  help, 


PESTALOZZI  THE  PHILANTHROPIST.  57 

and  I  accordingly  submit  my  plan  to  the  friends  and  bene- 
factors of  humanity. 

"  My  prayer  is  that  they  will  advance  me  a  small  sum 
yearly,  for  six  years.  After  the  tenth  year,  the  money  will 
be  paid  back  in  yearly  instalments  from  the  earnings  of  the 
workmen  I  have  trained. 

"  I  promise  that  if  I  succeed  in  getting  this  help,  I  will 
abandon  every  other  occupation,  and  devote  my  whole  time 
and  strength  to  the  education  of  poor  friendless  children.  I 
promise  that  the  number  of  the  children  shall  be  regulated 
by  the  financial  support  I  receive.  I  promise  to  teach  them 
all  to  read,  write,  and  cipher ;  I  promise  to  give  all  the  boys, 
so  far  as  my  position  and  knowledge  will  allow  me,  practical 
instruction  in  the  most  profitable  methods  of  cultivating  small 
plots  of  land,  to  teach  them  to  lay  down  pasture-land,  to 
understand  the  use  and  value  of  manures,  to  know  the  differ- 
ent sorts  of  grasses,  and  the  importance  of  mixing  them ;  the 
nature  and  use  of  marl ;  the  effect,  still  disputed,  of  the 
repeated  application  of  lime ;  the  management  of  fruit-trees, 
and  perhaps  of  a  few  forest  trees.  All  this  will  come  naturally 
out  of  the  work  connected  with  the  actual  needs  of  the  house, 
and  will  not  be  a  special  study  calling^  for  increased  expense. 
It  will  be  the  household  needs,  too,  that  will  give  the  girls 
an  opportunity  of  learning  gardening,  domestic  duties,  and 
needlework. 

"  The  chief  occupation  in  bad  weather  will  be  cotton- 
spinning. 

"  I  undertake  to  furnish  all  these  children  with  suitable 
food,  clothing,  and  lodging,  and  have  already  made  many  of 
the  necessary  alterations  and  arrangements  in  my  house. 

"I  promise  to  give  the  most  conscientious  attention  to  their 
religious  instruction,  and  to  do  all  I  can  to  put  gentleness  and 
purity  into  their  hearts. 

"  I  have  still  to  add  that  in  support  of  my  views  I  can 
point  to  the  twenty  children  who  are  now  living  and  working 
wiyth  me.  They  are  in  perfect  health,  and  their  happiness,  in 
spite  of  hard  work,  has  surpassed  my  expectations.  Their 
general  cheerfulness  and  courage,  and  the  delicate  feeling  and 
affection  of  which  several  of  them  have  given  proof,  fill  me 
with  great  hopes  for  the  future.  The  care  and  expense  of 
these  children  will  continue  to  be  mine  alone." 
6 


58  PESTALOZZI:    HIS  LIFE  AND    WORK. 

Pestalozzi  then  promises  to  give  a  yearly  account  of  the 
progress  of  his  work,  and  asks  to  have  it  inspected,  so  that 
no  money  may  be  given  unless  his  promises  are  found  to  have 
been  faithfully  performed.  He  then  mentions  a  few  names 
of  prominent  men  who  have  already  expressed  approval  of  his 
plan,  and  are  prepared  to  give  the  necessary  information  to 
any  who  desire  it.  The  appeal  closes  with  these  words : 

"Friends  of  humanity,  notwithstanding  all  my  mistakes 
and  the  injury  I  have  done  myself  by  my  precipitation,  will 
you  still  give  me  your  confidence,  and  support  an  undertaking 
which,  though  it  is  beset  with  dangers,  is  likely  to  have  the 
happiest  results,  my  past  errors  having  taught  me  many 
lessons. 

"  Neuhof,  Koenigsfelden,  December  9th,  1775, 

"J.  H.  PESTALOZ."! 

Amongst  the  men  of  talent  and  influence  who  approved  of 
the  enterprise,  none  supported  it  with  more  zeal  than  Iselin, 
of  Basle,  the  editor  of  the  EpJiemerides,  a  high-souled  and 
noble-minded  man  of  whom  his  country  should  be  proud.  Soon 
after  Pestalozzi's  appeal  had  been  made  public,  Iselin  made 
the  following  announcement  in  his  paper : 

"  We  are  happy  to  state  that  Mr.  Pestaloz  has  not  ap- 
pealed for  help  in  vain.  The  Council  of  Commerce  of  the 
Berne  Republic,  together  with  many  private  individuals, 
have  promised  to  support  him,  so  that  there  is  a  reasonable 
hope  of  his  work  being  continued.  In  further  explanation  of 
his  views,  we  hope  shortly  to  publish  some  letters  from  Mr. 
Pestaloz,  in  which  will  be  found  many  excellent  ideas  on 
the  rural  education  of  poor  children." 

The  letters  thus  announced  by  Iselin,  together  with  notices 
of  the  establishment  at  Neuhof  and  evidence  as  to  its  work- 
ing, were  collected  from  the  Ephemerides,  and  published  by 
Seyffarth  in  his  complete  edition  of  Pestalozzi's  works  (vol. 
viii.).  These  various  documents  throw  a  new  light  on  this 
attempt  to  regenerate  the  working  classes,  regeneration  no 

1  Pestalozzi's  family  often  signed  Pestaloz  or  Pestaluz,  probably  to  give 
their  Italian  name  a  termination  more  in  keeping  with  ihe  language  of 
Zurich. 


PESTALOZZI  THE  PHILANTHROPIST.  59 

less  needed  in  many  countries  to-day.  As  their  length  un- 
fortunately does  not  allow  us  to  give  them  in  full,  a  short 
summary  must  suffice. 

First  letter  to  N.  E.  T.     (Undated.} 

Pestalozzi  points  out  that  the  defect  of  ordinary  institutions 
for  the  education  of  poor  children  is  that  the  children  are  not 
brought  up  consistently  with  the  position  that  they  will  pro- 
bably occupy  in  after  life ;  they  contract  habits  which  they 
will  afterwards  have  to  give  up ;  they  do  not  learn  to  be 
satisfied  with  merely  having  their  most  pressing  wants  sup- 
plied ;  they  form  no  habits  of  steady  application  or  frugality, 
because  they  know  that  whatever  they  may  do,  they  cannot 
want  for  anything. 

Second  letter,  to  the  same,  January  10fA,  1777. 

Poor  children  must  be  brought  up  in  private  establishments 
where  agriculture  and  industry  are  combined,  and  where  the 
living  is  of  the  very  simplest ;  they  must  learn  to  work 
steadily  and  carefully  with  their  hands,  the  chief  part  of 
their  time  being  devoted  to  this  manual  work,  and  their 
instruction  and  education  being  associated  with  it. 

The  work  of  the  children  must  pay  for  their  keep  ;  in  this 
way  they  will  be  working  for  themselves,  and  their  style  of 
living  will  depend  on  the  success  of  their  work. 

But  is  it  possible  for  children's  work  to  pay  for  their  keep, 
and  if  so,  under  what  conditions  ?  Pestalozzi  examines  this 
question  with  the  greatest  care. 

He  supposes  an  establishment  receiving  children  at  the 
age  of  eight  or  nine  years  and  keeping  them  for  six  years. 
The  first  year  he  would  admit  twenty-five,  the  second  fifteen, 
the  third  fifteen,  and  so  on  each  year  till  the  total  number  of 
a  hundred  pupils  was  reached.  Then  he  calculates  for  each 
year,  on  the  one  hand,  the  earnings  of  each  child  at  cotton- 
spinning  according  to  his  age,  on  the  other,  the  expenses  of 
the  establishment,  and  from  this  calculation  it  results  that 
after  the  sixth  year  the  establishment  would  have  paid  all  its 
expenses  and  would  be  making  a  clear  profit. 

Pestalozzi  then  goes  on  to  say  that  in  his  district,  agri- 
culture alone  will  not  support  all  the  inhabitants,  and  has  to 
be  supplemented  by  some  form  of  industry,  adapted  to  the 
particular  conditions  of  the  place.  As  to  agriculture,  very 


60  PESTALOZZI:    HIS  LIFE  AND    WORK. 

expensive  operations  are,  of  course,  not  possible  for  the  poor ; 
all  they  can  hope  for  is  to  have  a  small  piece  of  land  to  culti- 
vate, the  produce  of  which  will  provide  for  their  household 
wants,  and  perhaps  leave  them  something  to  sell.  He  there- 
fore teaches  his  children  hardly  anything  but  the  cultivation 
of  vegetables,  in  which  he  finds  that  they  take  a  great 
interest ;  afterwards,  having  seen  how  much  can  be  got  out 
of  the  land  by  steady  and  intelligent  labour,  they  will  be 
eager  to  have  some  of  their  own. 

Pestalozzi  then  comes  to  the  religious  question.  We  will 
here  give  his  own  words : 

"What  a  terrible  responsibility  for  the  director,  who, 
should  he  let  the  children  forget  their  God,  their  Father, 
their  Saviour,  or  fail  to  implant  in  them  the  faith  in  God's 
revelation,  which  is  our  only  support  in  trouble  and  the  hope 
of  the  eternal  life  to  which  we  are  called,  will  surely  be  made 
to  account  for  his  neglect  of  these  young  souls !  The  director 
should  be,  as  it  were,  a  father  to  the  children  ;  their  progress 
in  application  and  in  wisdom  should  cause  him  a  father's 
joy ;  the  daily  improvement  in  their  powers,  their  minds  and 
hearts  should  raise  his  own  character,  and  so  be  his  reward ; 
if  this  were  not  so,  the  work  would  not  be  worth  his  trouble 
and  would  profit  him  nothiag." 

Third  letter,  to  the  same. 

Neuhof,  March  19th,  1777. 

Pestalozzi  here  gives  an  account  of  the  results  of  his 
experiment  for  the  past  three  years;  from  which  he  concludes 
that  success  in  his  enterprise  is  not  at  all  impossible.  For 
instance,  it  is  possible  to  make  the  work  of  the  children  pay 
for  their  maintenance ;  for  the  amount  both  of  earnings  and 
expenses  has  entirely  justified  his  calculations. 

It  is  possible  to  encourage  their  growth  and  keep  them 
strong  and  well  on  a  very  plain  and  inexpensive  diet,  for  they 
eat  hardly  anything  but  vegetable  food  ;  and  though  they 
work  hard,  they  are  very  robust ;  the  strongest  go  about  in 
summer  bareheaded  and  without  shoes  or  stockings.  ( Jacobli, 
the  director's  only  son,  is  treated  in  the  same  way.) 

It  is  possible  in  a  very  short  time  not  only  to  make  them 
moderately  good  workers,  but  at  the  same  time  to  teach  them 
all  that  it  is  most  necessary  for  them  to  know. 


PESTALOZZI  THE  PHILANTHROPIST.          61 

But  there  have  been  unforeseen  difficulties : 

1st.  There  are  some  children  so  accustomed  to  a  vagrant 
life  that  they  cannot  be  induced  to  give  it  up. 

2nd.  There  are  some  parents  so  ungrateful  and  unnatural 
that  they  will  sacrifice  the  welfare  and  future  of  their  children 
for  the  smallest  immediate  advantage ;  they  come  to  Neuhof 
and  entice  them  away  the  very  moment  they  see  that  they 
are  clean,  in  good  health,  well  clothed,  and  in  a  position  to 
earn  something. 

The  past  year  has  been  a  hard  one  for  the  establishment ; 
Mrs.  Pestalozzi  has  been  seriously  ill  nearly  the  whole  time. 
In  spite  of  the  greatest  attention  to  cleanliness,  several 
children  have  suffered  from  an  infectious  skin  disease.  There 
have  also  been  twenty-four  cases  of  measles  in  the  house,  all 
ending  happily,  however.  Finally  the  crops  have  suffered 
three  times  from  hail  storms. 

But  Pestalozzi  is  not  discouraged ;  he  will  never  forsake 
the  work,  nor  will  his  wife.  But  he  thinks  it  can  never 
prosper,  or  meet  with  complete  success,  unless,  by  formal 
agreements  with  the  parents  and  by  the  help  of  the  authori- 
ties, it  is  made  impossible  for  any  child  to  be  taken  away 
from  the  establishment  before  his  full  time  is  up. 

A  few  words  on  the  most  degraded  portion  of  humanity. 
An  appeal  to  the  charitable  to  come  to  its  assistance. 

Neuhof,  September  18th,  1777. 

In  this  paper  Pestalozzi  gives  a  detailed  account  of  a  dozen 
of  these  poor  children.  They  came  to  him  in  a  state  of  such 
degradation  as  to  excite  almost  as  much  fear  as  compassion  ; 
they  seemed  absolutely  incapable  of  doing  anything  but 
harm  either  to  society,  their  families,  or  themselves. 

Many  of  them,  however,  were  very  intelligent,  and  nearly 
all  have  improved  very  much  already,  and  are  beginning  to 
work  well  enough  to  earn  their  own  living.  Judging  from 
his  experience,  Pestalozzi  thinks  that  even  the  weakest  and 
most  feeble-minded  ones  may  be  saved. 

But  the  director  must  be  a  father  to  them,  no  other  re- 
lationship being  really  efficacious  and  salutary  in  this  sort  cf 
education. 

The  children  must  remain  in  the  establishment  five  or  six 
years,  and  must  be  kept  from  the  influence  of  their  reaJ 


62  PESTALOZZI:    HIS  LIFE  AND    WORK. 

parents,  whenever  such  influence  is  unmistakably  pernicious. 
Pestalozzi  has  now  thirty-six  children  in  his  house;  this 
number  will  be  increased  next  spring,  and  the  financial 
position  of  the  establishment  will  be  thereby  improved. 

Educational  Establishment  for  poor  children  at  Neuhof, 
in  Aargau.     (Undated.) 

This  is  a  report  addressed  by  Pestalozzi  to  the  supporters 
of  his  undertaking,  in  which  he  explains  his  plans  and  the 
difficulties  .that  are  still  to  be  overcome,  and  begs  them  to 
continue  their  support,  and  to  have  the  establishment  in- 
spected by  competent  persons. 

The  household  numbers  fifty,  including  the  masters,  work- 
men, and  servants  necessary  for  the  proper  education  and 
training  of  the  children  and  the  proper  cultivation  of  the  land. 

The  experience  gained  at  Neuhof  shows  clearly  that  it  is 
absolutely  necessary  to  attach  some  conditions  to  the  ad- 
mission of  pupils,  and  Pestalozzi  feels  compelled  to  say  that 
in  future  he  will  receive  no  child  without  a  formal  agreement 
with  the  parents.  Town  children  he  will  not  admit  at  all, 
unless  very  young,  for  they  are  a  constant  source  of  trouble. 

Pestalozzi  ends  by  repeating  his  determination  to  devote 
himself  entirely  to  this  work. 

Then  follows  a  statement  by  the  Berne  Agricultural  So- 
ciety, in  which  the  Society  declares  that,  having  had  the. 
establishment  at  Neuhof  examined  by  well-known  and  com- 
petent men,  it  has  every  confidence  that  Pestalozzi  will  make 
it  succeed,  and  is  glad  to  be  able  to  commend  it  to  the  atten- 
tion of  the  public. 

Then  comes  a  note  by  Iselin,  who  corroborates  the  Society's 
statement,  and  offers  to  receive  any  donations  for  the  Neuhof 
establishment,  and  forward  them  to  Pestalozzi. 

Authentic  account  of  Mr.  PestalozzVs  Educational  Estab- 
lishment for  poor  children  at  Neuhof,  near  Birr,  in 
the  year  1778. 

This  was  a  pamphlet  published  by  the  before-mentioned 
Society,  containing  first  a  preface  by  the  Society,  which 
is  almost  word  for  word  the  same  as  the  statement  we  have 
just  summarized,  and  then  an  account  by  Pestalozzi  himself, 
signed  •  "  J.  H.  Pestalozze,  Neuhof,  February  26th,  1778." 


PESTALOZZI  THE  PHILANTHROPIST.  63 

This  new  account  is  little  more  than  a  repetition  of  the 
others.  At  the  end,  Pestalozzi  announces  that  he  has  received 
some  sixty  pounds  in  donations,  thanks  his  benefactors,  and 
begs  the  public  to  continue  their  support. 

But  the  special  interest  of  this  pamphlet  is  that  it  contains 
a  detailed  account  of  each  of  the  thirty-seven  pupils.  As 
these  details  take  us  to  the  heart  of  the  matter,  and  teach  us 
more  than  any  number  of  generalizations,  we  shall  give  them 
word  for  word : 

"  I  have  to-day  in  my  establishment  the  following  chil- 
dren : 

"  1.  Barbara  Brunner,  of  Esch  (Zurich),  17 ;  admitted 
three  years  ago  in  a  state  of  utter  ignorance,  but  very  in- 
telligent. Now  she  spins,  reads,  and  writes  fairly  well,  likes 
singing,  is  principally  engaged  in  the  kitchen. 

« t.  MaTia  Hirt;  11  j  }  tw°  sisters'  fr°m  Windiscl1- 

"  Frena  has  a  weak  chest ;  she  spins  well,  is  beginning  to 
sew  and  write  nicely.  I  am  pleased  with  her  character. 
Maria  is  younger  and  stronger,  is  quick  at  everything, 
especially  figures,  and  spins  remarkably  well ;  she  is  quite 
strong  enough  for  any  work  suited  to  her  age. 

"  4.  Anna  Vogt,  19 :      )  ,         .  ,        t        TIT     j     t. 

"  5.  Lisbeth  Vogt,  11 ;  }  two  sisters'  from  Mandach- 

"  They  came  to  me  three  years  ago,  terribly  neglected  in 
body  and  mind ;  they  had  spent  their  lives  in  begging.  We 
have  had  enormous  trouble  to  make  them  in  the  least  degree 
orderly,  truthful,  and  active.  The  ignorance  of  the  elder,  and 
the  depth  of  degradation  to  which  she  had  sunk  are  scarcely 
credible.  She  is  still  idle,  but  her  heart  seems  to  have  been 
touched.  She  still  feels  the  effect  of  her  miserable  childhood, 
and  suffers  from  swollen  feet  and  other  ailments ;  she  is  ab- 
solutely incapable  of  out-door  work. 

"  The  younger  sister  is  intelligent  and  robust,  but  I  tremble 
at  her  determined  opposition  to  all  good  influences.  Lately, 
however,  I  have  seen,  I  fancy,  some  very  slight  traces  of 
improvement.  She  spins  fairly  well,  and  can  do  any  sort  of 
work  either  in  the  house  or  the  fields. 

"  6.  Henri  Vogt,  of  Mandach,  11 ;  has  been  here  three 
years ;  can  weave,  is  beginning  to  write,  works  hard  at  French 
and  arithmetic,  is  exact  and  careful  in  all  he  does ;  but  he 


64  PESTALOZZI:   HIS  LIFE  AND    WORK. 

seems  cunning  and  deceitful,  suspicious  and  greedy  ;  has  good 
health. 

"  7.  Anneli  Vogt,  of  Mandach,  11,  daughter  of  Jacob  Vogt ; 
likes  work,  spins  well,  sings  prettily,  is  apt  at  figures,  is 
strong  and  useful  out  of  doors  as  well  as  in  the  house ;  has 
been  here  three  years. 

"  8.  Jacob  Vogt,  her  brother,  9  ;  here  three  years.  He  is 
subject  to  occasional  attacks  of  colic,  one  of  the  results  of 
his  wretched  childhood.  He  is  stubborn  and  very  idle. 

"9.  Jacob  Eichemberger,  of  Brunegg,  13;  was  induced  to 
run  away  six  months  ago,  but  came  back  after  a  long  absence. 
He  seems  to  have  a  good  disposition  ;  he  is  intelligent,  strong 
and  useful  in  the  fields ;  he  is  attentive,  a  good  weaver,  and 
is  beginning  to  write  fairly  well. 

"  10.  Lisbeth  Renold,  of  Brunegg,  10 ;  when  admitted  a 
year  and  a  half  ago  she  was  so  weak  from  want  of  proper  food 
that  she  could  hardly  walk ;  has  made  great  progress ;  enjoys 
good  health  now,  and  is  very  intelligent,  but  there  is  little 
hope  of  her  ever  being  strong  enough  for  work  in  the  fields. 
She  spins  well  and  diligently. 

"  11.  David  Rudolf,  of  Zurzach,  15;  here  a  year  and  a  half ; 
weaves  well,  has  a  good  disposition,  writes  well,  and  takes 
pains  with  arithmetic  and  French. 

"  12.  Leonzi  Hediger,  of  Endingen,  near  Baden  (Aargau), 
14 ;  has  been  here  three  years.  He  is  a  healthy  boy,  strong 
and  accustomed  to  working  in  the  fields  ;  the  best  weaver  in 
the  house  ;  is  beginning  to  write  a  little,  and  likes  French. 
He  is  quick  at  everything,  but  ill-mannered  and  uncouth. 

"13.  Francisca  Hediger,  his  sister,  16;  here  three  years; 
she  spins,  sews,  and  cooks  equally  well;  she  has  all  the 
qualities  of  a  thoughtful,  obedient,  intelligent,  and  honest 
servant. 

•    -MT    '          TT  j-        ~)  two  sisters;  both  healthy,  active 
14.  Marianne  Hediger,         &nd          ^    f  house.^ork  or 

"15.  Mana  Hediger,        j      field.wjrk. 

"16.  Friedly  Mynth,  of  Bussy,  near  Aubonne,  lived  after- 
wards at  Worblauffen,  10 ;  has  been  here  six  months ;  she  is 
very  weak,  and  incapable  of  real  work,  but  is  clever  in 
drawing,  and  has  very  artistic  tastes.  Inclined  to  fun ;  does 
nothing  but  draw. 

"17.  Susan  Mynth,  her  sister,  9:  healthy,  very  diligent 
and  active,  takes  pleasure  in  her  studies. 


PESTALOZZ1   THE   PHILANTHROPIST.          65 

"  18.  Marianne  Mynth,  their  sister,  8 ;  a  pretty  child,  in- 
telligent, very  sensitive,  and  as  whimsical  and  self-willed  as 
her  sisters  ;  she  is  not  strong  enough  for  heavy  work. 

"  19.  Babeli  Baechli,  17 ;  has  been  here  three  years  ;  she  is 
very  inattentive  and  thoughtless,  and  only  useful  for  running 
errands ;  of  very  little  intelligence,  but  strong  and  healthy. 

"  20.  Jacob  Baechli,  her  brother,  15  ;  here  three  years ;  is 
also  inattentive  and  thoughtless.;  spent  his  childhood  in  beg- 
ging and  idleness ;  weaves  fairly  well,  and  is  beginning  to 
write,  but  has  no  taste  for  French  ;  discontented  and  hard  to 
satisfy. 

"21.  Hudi  Baechli,  10;  here  three  years;  remarkable  for 
his  taste  for  figures,  good-nature,  and  calm  earnestness  in  his 
religious  duties. 

"  22.  Maria  Baechli,  his  sister,  8 ;  weak  both,  in  mind  and 
body.  But  it  will  be  very  interesting  for  humanity  to  see 
that  imbecile  children,  who,  badly  brought  up,  would  have 
had  nothing  but  the  madhouse  before  them,  may  by  tender 
care  be  saved  from  this  sad  end,  and  taught  to  earn  a  modest 
and  independent  livelihood. 

"  23.  George  Vogt,  of  Mandach,  11 ;  here  two  years ;  a  very 
promising  boy ;  takes  pains  with  everything  ;  kind,  intelligent, 
lively,  healthy,  and  useful  in  the  fields  and  in  the  house. 

"  24.  Henri  Fuchsli,  of  Brugg,  7 ;  has  only  been  here  a  few 
weeks  ;  seems  intelligent. 

"  25.  Jean  Maurer,  of  Stettlen,  15  ;  here  six  months ;  strong, 
and  very  useful  in  the  fields,  weaves  well,  is  fairly  diligent, 
and  has  some  power ;  but  I  am  sometimes  afraid  that  his 
simplicity  and  amiability  are  only  a  pretence. 

"26.  Anni  Maurer,  his  sister,  32;  of  most  uncouth  man- 
ners, especially  at  meals ;  very  slow  and  lazy,  lies  most  un- 
blushingly  ;  spins  well,  but  slowly  and  with  nmch  labour ;  is 
strong  and  healthy. 

"  27.  Louis  Schroeter,  15  ;  very  able  boy,  but  unfortunately 
very  deceitful ,  as  he  writes  well,  and  has  made  great  pro- 
gress with  arithmetic  and  French,  he  is  very  useful  to  me ; 
has  an  exceptionally  good  ear  for  music. 

"  28.  Babette  Schroeter,  his  sister,  14 ;  sews,  spins,  and 
reads  fairly  well,  is  beginning  to  write. 

"  29.  Nanette  Henri,  9  ;  )  ,      . ,  ,     .  . 

"30.  GattonHenri,8; '  j  brother  and  8ister' 

"  These  children  have  lately  been  sent  to  me  from  Schenken- 


66  PESTALOZZI     HIS  LIFE  AND    WORK. 

berg  by  the  head  of  the  French  colony,  who  generously  pro- 
vided them  with  many  necessaries.  They  are  well-behaved 
and  good-tempered ;  Gatton  is  very  capable  and  vivacious, 
Nanette  less  so.  They  have  never  been  accustomed  to  do  any- 
thing, and  their  open  and  affectionate  natures  make  it  hard 
to  set  them  to  steady  work  so  soon.  But  I  am  quite  sure 
they  will  get  on  well,  especially  Gatton. 

"  31.  Suzanne  Dattwyler,  of  Elfingen,  10  ;  her  unfortunate 
father  is  in  prison  ;  she  came  to  me  half  dead  from  want  and 
trouble,  but  her  bodily  strength  is  returning  in  a  surprising 
manner.  She  spins  well :  is  very  quick,  especially  at  singing. 

"  32.  Suzanne  de  Tallheim,  10 ;  natural  child ;  has  been  in 
the  habit  of  running  away ;  is  intelligent,  but  deceitful  and 
capricious.  Likes  singing,  spins  well,  has  good  health. 

"  33.  Conrad  Meyer,  10 ;  ~\ 

"  34.  Lisbeth  Meyer,  9  ;  >  of  Rohrdorf,  near  Baden. 

"  35.  Maurice  Meyer,  4  ; ) 

"  Came  to  me  quite  recently  after  a  life  of  vagrancy.  Con- 
rad is  healthy ;  Lisbeth's  nature  promises  well ;  Maurice  was 
in  a  terrible  condition  from  want,  but  is  beginning  to  regain 
strength.  He  seems  intelligent. 

"  36.  George  Hediger,  4 ;  this  child  and  the  one  last  men- 
tioned are  the  only  two  children  in  the  house  who  are  still 
too  young  to  earn  anything  by  their  work. 

"  37.  Henry  Hirsbrunner,  of  Sumiswald,  12  ;  this  boy  is 
very  clever  and  attentive.  I  expect  very  much  from  him,  if 
only,  after  having  been  a  servant  in  the  town,  he  can  reconcile 
himself  to  our  mode  of  life.  He  makes  rapid  progress,  and 
has  learned  to  write  better  in  a  few  days  than  others  who 
have  been  learning  for  months. 

"  In  the  management  of  the  establishment  and  care  of  the 
children,  I  get  very  valuable  help  from  Miss  Madelon  Spind- 
ler,  of  Strasburg,  who  is  both  highly  gifted  and  of  un- 
tiring activity.  I  have,  besides,  a  master  to  teach  weaving, 
and  two  skilled  weavers ;  a  mistress  to  teach  spinning,  and 
two  good  spinners ;  a  man  who  winds  for  the  weavers  and 
teaches  reading  at  the  same  time ;  and  two  men  and  two 
women  who  are  almost  always  employed  on  the  land." 

These  quotations  give  an  exact  and  complete  idea  of  what 
the  establishment  at  Neuhof  was  like  till  the  spring  of  1778, 
when  Pestalozzi  considerably  increased  the  number  of  his 


PESTALOZZI   THE  PHILANTHROPIST.  67 

children,  hoping  in  that  way  to  improve  the  financial  con- 
dition of  his  undertaking.  But  the  step  had  just  the  contrary 
effect,  or  rather,  it  had  no  effect  in  stopping  the  ruin  which 
was  already  imminent. 

At  this  time,  the  grave  evil  that  Pestalozzi  was  attempting 
to  cure  was  very  widespread  in  the  district,  as  is  evident 
from  the  large  number  of  children  brought  to  him  (at  one 
time  he  had  as  many  as  eighty),  and  from  the  utter  demoraliza- 
tion of  both  children  and  parents. 

To  many  of  the  children  their  vagrant,  idle  life  had  be- 
come more  than  a  habit,  it  had  become  almost  a  necessity ; 
they  hated  the  steady,  hardworking  life  to  which  they  were 
now  called  ;  nor  did  the  simple,  frugal  fare  make  up  to  them 
for  the  dainties  that  had  sometimes  fallen  to  their  share,  and 
so  they  became  rebellious  and  dissatisfied,  and  only  thought 
of  escaping. 

The  parents,  who  had  expected  to  be  more  than  compensated 
for  the  loss  of  what  their  children  had  been  able  to  beg, 
encouraged  them  in  their  discontent,  and  threatened  to  take 
them  away  from  Pestalozzi  in  order  to  profit  by  their  earnings 
themselves. 

Yet  these  were  children,  who  had  arrived  covered  with 
rags  and  vermin,  whom  Pestalozzi  had  made  clean  and  tidy, 
and  with  whom  he  shared  his  meals,  "  giving  them  the  best 
potatoes,  and  keeping  the  worst  for  himself." 

"  Every  Sunday,"  he  said,  "  my  house  was  filled  with  a 
set  of  beggarly  parents,  who,  not  finding  their  children's 
position  answer  to  their  expectations,  and  as  if  to  encourage  . 
them  in  their  discontent,  treated  me  with  such  insolent 
high-handedness  as  was  only  possible  in  an  establishment 
having  neither  official  support  nor  imposing  exterior." 

To  make  matters  worse,  many  children  ran  away,  escaping 
in  the  night,  and  carrying  off  the  Sunday  clothes  that  Pesta- 
lozzi had  given  them.  Soon,  too,  the  complaints  of  the  parents 
reached  the  ears  of  the  supporters  of  the  work,  subscriptions 
fell  off,  and  public  interest  in  the  establishment  considerably 
lessened.  Pestalozzi,  however,  was  not  discouraged,  but 
worked  on  almost  beyond  his  strength,  daily  adding  sacrifice 
to  sacrifice,  and  in.  ill  health  and  misfortune  faithfully  sup- 
ported by  his  noble-hearted  wife.  But  he  felt  at  last,  though 


68          PESTALOZZI :  HIS  LIFE  AND    WORK. 

too  late,  tlie  absolute  necessity  of  calling  in  the  help  of  able 
and  experienced  men  to  make  up  for  his  own  deficiencies. 

The  heroic  struggle  was  prolonged  for  two  years,  but  at 
last,  in  1780,  resources  and  credit  being  alike  exhausted,  an 
enterprise,  to  which  the  husband  and  wife  had  devoted  their 
last  strength  and  their  last  shilling,  had  to  be  finally  aban- 
doned. 

Of  the  experiment  which  ended  thus  unhappily,  nobody 
will  deny  the  importance,  seeing  that  the  sore  it  was  in- 
tended to  cure  is  still  open  and  smarting  to-day.  Pestalozzi'3 
work  at  Neuhof  serves  better  than  anything  else,  perhaps, 
to  show  the  character  of  the  man.  The  idea  was  his  own, 
and  was  not  only  the  dream  of  his  youth,  but  remained 
throughout  his  life  the  favourite  subject  of  his  thoughts ; 
even  at  eighty  years  of  age  he  still  had  hopes  of  renewing 
the  experiment,  and  carrying  it  to  a  successful  issue. 

How  much  good  has  the  experiment  done?  Alas,  very 
little  !  And  yet  there  have  been  men  in  Switzerland  who, 
following  the  principles  of  the  master,  but  avoiding  his 
mistakes,  have  applied  his  methods  to  the  education  of 
orphans  and  the  regeneration  of  vicious  children,  with  very 
considerable  success. 

The  reader  will  not  have  forgotten  the  state  of  misery 
and  corruption  of  the  country  district  round  Neuhof,  when 
Pestalozzi  opened  his  house  to  the  vagrant  children.  When 
in  1869  we  visited  the  spot,  still  free  from  railways  and  un- 
known to  tourists,  we  found  the  land  well  cultivated,  the 
people  hard-working  and  comfortable,  no  beggars,  and  good 
schools.  The  immense  improvement  which  had  taken  place 
in  those  ninety  years  proves  that  although  Pestalozzi  had 
failed  in  his  practical  attempt  to  raise  the  people,  the  influence 
of  his  ideas,  and  of  the  principle  which  inspired  him,  had 
not  remained  without  result.  There  are  some  ruins  whose 
dust  is  fertile. 

Pestalozzi  was  now  as  poor  as  the  beggars  who  had  excited 
his  pity  ;  he  had  absolutely  nothing  left.  He  had  acted  like 
one  who,  without  thinking  whether  his  strength  will  suffice, 
plunges  into  the  water  to  save  a  drowning  man,  and  sinks 
with  him.  His  friends,  however,  came  to  his  rescue,  and 
kept  his  home  together  for  him. 

We  have  not  been  able  to  find  any  trace  of  the  arrange- 
ment which  must  then  have  been  made  between  the  ruined 


PESTALOZZI  THE  PHILANTHROPIST.  69 

philanthropist  and  his  creditors.  The  bare  facts  are  that  the 
land,  with  the  exception  of  an  acre  or  two,  was  let  for  the 
benefit  of  the  creditors,  but  that  Pestalozzi  still  remained 
the  owner  of  Neuhof,  and  still  lived  in  the  house.  His  wife's 
bad  health,  however,  rendered  her  incapable  of  attending  to 
her  household  duties,  and  he  himself,  disheartened,  awkward, 
and  worn  out  in  mind  and  body,  was  hardly  able  to  provide 
the  barest  necessaries;  indeed,  before  very  long,  they  were 
without  food,  fuel,  or  money,  and  suffering  from  cold  and 
want. 

But  while  in  this  state  of  terrible  distress,  the  sad  family 
at  Neuhof  happily  received  the  most  providential  help,  thanks 
to  an  act  of  devotion  that  is  worthy  of  being  told  in  all 
countries  and  in  all  ages.  It  is  once  more  a  poor  servant  who 
sacrifices  herself — this  time,  however,  without  having  even 
been  asked  for  help,  and  for  people  who  are  almost  strangers. 

Elizabeth  Naef,  of  Kappel,  belonged  to  a  family  that  had 
won  distinction  in  the  religious  wars,  and  had  obtained  the 
right  of  citizenship  in  Zurich.  She  had  known  something 
of  Pestalozzi  through  having  been  in  the  service  of  one  of 
his  relations,  and  now,  her  master  being  dead,  she  no  sooner 
heard  of  the  disaster  and  distress  at  Neuhof  than  she  hurried 
to  the  assistance  of  the  afflicted  family. 

At  first  Pestalozzi  refused  her  offers  of  help,  being  unwill- 
ing to  involve  in  his  own  trouble  a  woman  who,  though  pos- 
sessing nothing,  would  easily  find  some  light  work  elsewhere, 
and  be  sure  of  a  comfortable,  quiet  life.  He  was  afraid,  too, 
that  she  would  be  scandalized  by  finding  his  habits  in  religious 
matters  somewhat  different  from  her  own,  she  being  accus- 
tomed to  pray  or  sing  hymns  all  day  long,  a  practice  with 
which  Pestalozzi  had  no  sympathy.  But  he  was  unable  to 
shake  Elizabeth's  determination,  and  at  last  consented,  saying, 
"  Well,  you  will  find,  after  all,  that  God  is  in  our  house  too." 

The  devoted  woman  found  Neuhof  in  the  most  terrible  state 
of  disorder,  and  lost  no  time  in  setting  to  work.  She  saw  to 
the  garden,  dug  up  a  bit  of  land  with  her  own  hands,  every- 
where restored  cleanliness,  order,  and  productivity,  and  in 
this  way  provided  Pestalozzi  and  his  family  with  the  means 
of  subsistence  they  lacked. 

It  was  Elizabeth  who  served  as  the  type  for  the  character 
of  the  brave,  active,  clever,  gentle  and  devoted  woman  in 
Leonard  and  Gertrude.  Councillor  Nicolovius,  of  Berlin,  in 


70  PESTALOZZI:  HIS  LIFE  AND    WORK. 

an  account  of  a  visit  he  paid  to  Neuhof,  in  1780,  refers  to  her 
in  the  following  terms : — 

"  '  I  should  like,'  said  Pestalozzi,  moved  by  his  gratitude 
and  admiration,  '  to  give  you  some  idea  of  this  woman's  quiet 
activity,  that  you  may  always  have  a  picture  of  her  in  your 
mind.  What  I  am  going  to  say  may  perhaps  seem  too  strong, 
and  yet  I  am  not  ashamed  to  say  it.  God's  sun  pursues  its 
path  from  morning  to  evening,  yet  your  eye  detects  no  move- 
ment, your  ear  no  sound.  Even  when  it  goes  down,  you  know 
that  it  will  rise  again,  and  continue  to  ripen  the  fruits  of  the 
earth.  Extreme  as  it  may  seem,  I  am  not  ashamed  to  say 
that  this  is  an  image  of  Gertrude,  as  of  every  woman  who 
makes  her  house  a  temple  of  the  living  God,  and  wins  heaven 
for  her  husband  and  children.' l 

"  I  was  anxious  to  see  the  woman  to  whom  he  owed  so 
much.  As  she  did  not  appear,  Pestalozzi  took  me  to  the  field 
where  she  was  working,  and  asked  her  a  few  queslims,  that 
I  might  have  time  to  contemplate  her.  The  same  evening, 
he  said,  '  Knowing  all  she  does  for  us,  you  will  not  be  sur- 
prised to  hear  that,  she  eats  at  our  table.  I  hope  you  will  not 
mind  her  doing  so  to-night.'  But  she  did  not  come,  and  was 
so  unwilling  to  do  so  that  at  last  I  went  myself  and  begged 
her  to  come  so  earnestly  that  she  could  not  refuse.  Her 
whole  being  seemed  aglow,  if  I  may  say  so,  with  humble 
modesty." 

Frohlich,  of  Brugg,  who,  in  his  'Recollections  of  Pestalozzi, 
also  speaks  of  Elizabeth,  tells  us  that  the  author  of  Leonard 
and  Gertrude  had  so  much  confidence  in  her  judgment,  that 
he  often  read  her  passages  from  his  writings,  especially  those 
which  portrayed  character,  for  the  sake  of  having  her 
opinion. 

Ramsauer,2  too,  in  his  letter  to  Principal  Zahn,  speaks  as 
follows : 

"  I  knew  the  housekeeper  who  was  the  original  of  Ger- 

1  This  passage  occurs,  word  for  word,  in  "  Leonard  and  Gertrude.'' 
a  Kamsauer  was  a  poor  orphan,  who.  after  having  been  brought  up  by 

festalozzi,  at  Burgdorf,  became  one  of  his  most  distinguished  assistants. 

He  was  afterwards  a  fervent  Pietist,  and  tLe  tutor  of  the  Princesses  of 

Oldenburg. 


PESTALOZZI  THE   PHILANTHROPIST.  71 

trude  very  well,  having  lived  under  the  same  roof  with  her 
at  Yverdun  for  eleven  years.  Pestalozzi  said  to  me  one  day, 
'  I  know  that  after  my  death  she  will  be  more  honoured  than 
I ;  indeed,  if  it  were  not  so,  I  should  turn  in  my  grave  and 
be  unhappy  in  heaven ;  for,  had  it  not  been  for  her,  I  should 
have  been  dead  long  ago,  and  you,  Ramsauer,  would  not  have 
been  what  you  are ! '  She  was  certainly  a  remarkable  woman, 
though  entirely  without  education." 

In  1801,  Elizabeth,  after  nursing  poor  Jacobli  like  her  own 
son  throughout  his  long  illness,  married  Krusi,  the  brother 
of  Pestalozzi's  indefatigable  colleague,  and  from  1805  filled 
the  post  of  housekeeper  at  Yverdun,  where  she  was  a  general 
favourite  with  the  pupils. 

The  material  distress  from  which  Elizabeth  had  rescued 
Pestalozzi  was  not,  however,  the  most  painful  result  of  his 
disaster.  All  hope  of  carrying  out  his  generous  intention 
seemed  gone  for  ever.  He  had  lost  the  confidence  of  his 
fellow  citizens,  and  people,  seeing  him  pass,  exclaimed,  as  they 
shrugged  their  shoulders,  "Poor  wretch !  He  is  less  capable 
than  the  most  ignorant  labourer,  and  yet  he  talks  of  helping 
the  people ! "  Even  his  own  friends  no  longer  believed  in 
him;  they  felt,  indeed,  deep  sorrow  for  him,  but  avoided 
meeting  him  as  much  as  possible,  finding  it  too  painful  to  talk 
to  a  man  whom  they  still  loved,  but  whom  they  could  neither 
help  nor  console,  and  who  seemed  doomed  to  end  his  daya 
either  in  the  workhouse  or  the  madhouse. 

The  unfortunate  man  suffered  still  more  from  the  thought 
of  the  misery  he  had  brought  on  his  wife,  especially  when 
he  saw  how  uncomplaining  she  was,  and  how  she  sought  to 
lighten  his  troubles  by  redoubling  her  attentions  and  tender- 
ness. On  one  occasion,  when  Anna  and  Jacobli  had  prepared 
a  surprise  for  him  on  his  birthday,  he  cried : 

"  Ah,  you  do  too  much  ;  but  I  am  grateful  to  you  for  think- 
ing of  me.  I  am  deeply  grieved  that  the  mistakes  of  my 
youth  shoiild  have  brought  you  to  this  painful  position,  and 
yet  I  would  say,  Let  us  not  abandon  the  struggle  we  have 
been  engaged  in  so  long,  but  calmly  and  firmly  carry  it  on  to 
the  end.  There  is  a  God  above  who  smooths  the  difficulties 
of  life  for  some,  but  chains  others  to  their  misery.  How 
can  we  fight  against  the  stern  decrees  of  fate  better  than  by 


72  PESTALOZZI:  HIS  LIFE  A^D    WORK. 

remaining  upright  and   calm  amid  the  storms  that  surround 
us?" 

Another  passage  that  belongs  to  this  time  of  misery  and 
humiliation  runs  thus : 

"  Christ  teaches  us  by  His  example  and  doctrine  to  sacrifice 
not  only  our  possessions,  but  ourselves  for  the  good  of  others, 
and  shows  us  that  nothing  we  have  received  is  absolutely 
ours,  but  is  merely  entrusted  to  us  by  God  to  be  piously  em- 
ployed in  the  service  of  charity." 

It  was  thus  that  he  noted,  the  noble-hearted  man,  and 
one  cannot  help  wondering  whether  the  Puritan  theologians 
who  attacked  him  for  hetnrodoxy  were  better  Christians  than 
he? 

It  was  Elizabeth  who  had  rescued  Pestalozzi  and  his  family 
from  destitution,  but  it  was  Iselin  who  now  inspired  him  with 
fresh  courage  to  pursue  his  work,  that  work  which  the  world 
thought  finished,  but  which  in  reality  had  hardly  begun. 


CHAPTER  VI. 

PESTALOZZI   THE   WRITER. 

Iselin  inspires  him  with  new  courage,  and  urges  him  to  write. 
The  "  Evening  Hour  of  a  Hermit."  First  volume  of 
"Leonard  and  Gertrude."  "  The  Education  of  Children  in 
the  Home."  The  continuation  of  "  Leonard  and  Gertrude" 
Relations  with  Leopold  of  Tuscany  and  Joseph  II.  of 
Austria.  "  The  Sumptuary  Laws."  "  Christopher  and 
Eliza."  "On  Legislation  and  Infanticide."  "The  Swiss 
News."  Obliged  to  work  on  his  land  for  a  living.  His  un- 
published manuscript  on  "  The  Causes  of  the  French  Revo- 
lution." Correspondence  with  Nicolovius  and  Fellenberg  ; 
relations  with  Fichte.  "  An  Inquiry  into  the  Course  of 
Nature  in  the  Development  of  the  Human  Race"  Merit  as 
a  writer. 

THE  failure  of  the  undertaking  at  Neuhof  had  not  changed 
Pestalozzi's  belief  in  the  possibility  of  raising  the  people  by 
education,  but  it  had  for  the  time  deprived  him  of  all  means 
of  putting  his  ideas  into  execution.  His  dejection  was  so 
great  as  to  affect  his  health,  and  almost  to  endanger  his 
life. 

But  although  the  experiment  had  not  succeeded,  Iselin 
still  believed  in  the  excellence  of  the  idea  which  had  prompted 
it.  He  accordingly  came  to  Pestalozzi,  and  sought  to  rouse 
him  from  his  despair  by  offering  to  help  him  bring  before 
the  public  the  views  he  had  been  unable  to  carry  out. 

After  Iselin's  death,  Pestalozzi  thus  expressed  his  admira- 
tion and  gratitude  for  his  lost  benefactor : 

"  He  was  a  man  to  the  end  ;  whatever  was  human  attracted 
him,  and  he  had  moreover  a  wonderful  faculty  for  finding  it 
out.  wherever  and  under  whatever  mask  it  lay  concealed. 
It  was  in  this  way  that,  at  the  end  of  his  life,  he  discovered 
me,  bringing  me  warm-hearted  encouragement  at  a  time  when 
others  shrugged  their  shoulders  as  I  passed,  and  those  who 
7 


74  PESTALOZZI:  HIS  LIFE  AND    WORK. 

loved  me  could  but  groan  at  tlie  mention  of  my  name.  It 
was  then  that  this  man  came  to  me  with  smiles  and  comfort, 
this  man  who  was  at  once  my  father,  master,  helper  and 
deliverer." 

Pestalozzi's  experiments,  which  had  now  lasted  five  years, 
had  taught  him  much ;  always  in  contact  with  the  children 
of  the  people  he  wanted  to  save,  he  had  seen  them  just  as 
they  were  ;  by  his  steady  work,  varied  experiences,  and  per- 
sistent efforts,  he  had  got  to  the  heart  of  the  question  he 
wanted  to  solve ;  his  very  errors,  by  bringing  new  light,  had 
only  strengthened  him  in  his  convictions.  As  he  himself 
says: 

"  Even  while  I  was  the  sport  of  men  who  condemned  me, 
I  never  lost  sight  for  a  moment  of  the  object  I  had  in  view, 
which  was  the  removal  of  the  causes  of  the  misery  that  I 
saw  on  all  sides  of  me.  My  strength,  too,  kept  on  increasing, 
and  my  own  misfortunes  taught  me  valuable  truths.  I  knew 
the  people  as  no  one  else  did.  What  deceived  no  one  else 
always  deceived  me,  but  what  deceived  everybody  else  de- 
ceived me  no  longer.  .  .  . 

"  I  say  to-day,  with  deep  gratitude  to  God,  that  it  is  my 
own  sufferings  that  have  enabled  me  to  understand  the  suf- 
ferings of  the  people  and  their  causes,  as  no  man  without 
suffering  can  understand  them.  I  suffered  what  the  people 
suffered,  and  saw  them  as  no  one  else  saw  them,  and,  strange 
as  it  may  seem,  I  was  never  more  profoundly  convinced  of 
the  fundamental  truths  on  which  I  had  based  my  undertaking 
than  when  I  saw  that  I  had  failed !  "  l 

The  speady  and  complete  ruin  of  his  work  at  Neuhof, 
though  sad  in  many  ways,  was  on  the  whole  a  good  thing 
both  for  Pestalozzi  and  the  world.  For  if  it  had  been  at  all 
successful,  this  man,  in  his  efforts  to  be  a  father  to  the 
fatherless,  would  have  worn  himself  out  in  a  sphere  of 
activity  which  was  not  his  true  vocation,  and  for  which  he 
had  little  capacity,  and  education  perhaps  would  still  be 
awaiting  its  reformer. 

Not  being  in  a  position  to  make  any  more  practical  experi- 
ments, but  being  very  anxious  to  put  his  ideas  before  the 

1  Letter  to  Gessner,  dated  Burgdorf,  1801. 


PESTALOZZI  THE    WRITER,  75 

public,  Pestalozzi,  in  1780,  wrote  the  Evening  Hour  of  a 
Hermit.  This  was  his  first  educational  work,  and  is  by  no 
means  one  of  the  least  important,  but  it  is  very  little  known, 
and,  like  many  others,  is  wanting  in  Cotta's  edition  of  his 
writings.  Published  first  by  Iselin,  in  his  Ephemerides,  it 
was  afterwards  reprinted  by  Pestalozzi  in  a  weekly  edu- 
cational paper  he  published,  in  1807,  and  is  to  be  found 
in  Seyffarth's  complete  edition  of  his  works. 

The  Evening  Hour  of  a  Hermit  is  a  collection  of  short, 
pithy  aphorisms,  all  bearing  on  the  same  subject,  and  form- 
ing, as  a  whole,  a  complete  statement  of  the  author's  views 
as  to  the  raising  of  the  people  by  education.  There  are  a 
hundred  and  eight  of  them,  but  we  shall  only  quote  those 
which  seem  to  us  the  most  important,  taking  advantage  of 
the  numbers  prefixed  by  SeyfFarth,  to  show  their  relative 
position  in  the  work. 

EVENING  HOUR  OF  A  HERMIT. 

1.  "  Man,  whether  on  a  throne  or  in  a  cottage,  is  by  nature 
always  the  same ;  but  what  is  he  ?     Why  do  not  wise  men 
tell  us  ?     Why  do  not  the  best  minds  find  out  what  their 
own  race   really   is?    Does  the  peasant  use  oxen  without 
learning  to  understand  them  ?     Does  not  the  shepherd  con- 
cern himself  with  the  nature  of  his  sheep  ? 

2.  "  And  you  who  employ  men,  who  say  that  you  govern 
them,  and  lead  them,  will  you  not  take  as  much  pains  as  the 
peasant  for  his  oxen,  the  shepherd  for  his  sheep  ?     Is  your 
wisdom  the  knowledge  of  your  race  ?     Is  your  goodness  the 
enlightened  goodness  of  shepherds  of  the  people  ? 

3.  "  What  man  is,  what  he  needs,  what  raises  or  degrades 
him,  what  strengthens  or  weakens  him,  that  should  be  known 
alike  by  the  leaders  of  the  people,  and  by  the  inmates  of  the 
humblest  cottage. 

8.  "  All  the  pure  and  beneficent  powers  of  humanity  are 
neither  the  products  of  art  nor  the  results  of  chance.  They 
are  really  a  natural  possession  of  every  man.  Their  develop- 
ment is  a  universal  human  need. 

10.  "  The  infant  whose  hunger  has  been  satisfied  learns  in 
this  way  the  relations  between  its  mother  and  itself ;  love 
and  gratitude  are  awakened  in  its  heart  before  their  names 
Strike  its  ear ;  the  son  who  eats  his  father's  bread,  and  warms 


76  PESTALOZZ1:  HIS  LIFE  AND    WORK. 

himself  at  his  father's  hearth,  acquires  in  this  natural  manner 
the  salutary  knowledge  of  his  filial  duties. 

12.  "  Man !  in  thyself,  in  the  inward  consciousness  of  thine 
own  strength,  is  the  instrument  intended  by  Nature  for  thy 
development. 

21.  "  The   path  of  Nature,  which  develops  the  forces  of 
humanity,  must  be  easy  and  open  to  all ;  education,  which 
brings  true  wisdom  and  peace  of  mind,  must  be  simple  and 
within  everybody's  reach. 

22.  "  Nature  develops  all  the  forces  of  humanity  by  exer- 
cising them ;  they  increase  with  use. 

23.  "  The  exercise  of  a  man's  faculties  aud  talents,  to  be 
profitable,  must  follow  the  course  laid  down  by  Nature  for  the 
education  of  humanity. 

24.  "  This  is  why  the  man  who,  in  simplicity  and  inno- 
cence, exercises  his  forces  and  faculties  with  order,  calmness, 
and  steady  application,  is  naturally  led  to  true  human  wis- 
dom ;  whereas  he  who  subverts  the  order  of  Nature,  and  thus 
breaks  the  due  connection  between  the  different  branches  of 
his  knowledge,  destroys  in  himself  not  only  the  true  basis 
of  knowledge,  but  the  very  need  of  such  a  basis,  and  becomes 
incapable  of  appreciating  the  advantages  of  truth. 

25.  "  Thou  who  wouldst  be  a  father  to  thy  child,  do  not 
expect  too  much  of  him  till  his  mind  has  been  strengthened 
by  practice  in  the  things  he  can  understand ;  and  beware  of 
harshness  and  constraint. 

26.  "  When  men  are  anxious  to  go  too  fast,  and  are  not 
satisfied  with  Nature's  method  of  development,  they  imperil 
their  inward  strength,  and  destroy  the  harmony  and  peace  of 
their  souls. 

27.  "When  men  rush  into  the  labyrinth  of  words,  for- 
mulas, and  opinions,  without  having   gained  a  progressive 
knowledge  of  the  realities  of  life,  their  minds  must  develop 
on  this  one  basis,  and  can  have  no  other  source  of  strength. 

28.  "  The  schools  hastily  substitute  an  artificial  method  of 
words  for  the  truer  method  of  Nature,  which  knows  no  hurry, 
and  is   content   to   wait.      In   this  way  a  specious  form  of 
development   is   produced,  hiding   the  want  of  real  inward 
strength,  but  satisfying  times  like  our  own. 

36.  "  Man  !  if  thou  seekest  the  truth  in  this  natural  order, 
thou  wilt  find  it  as  thou  hast  need  of  it  for  thy  position  and 
for  the  career  which  is  opening  before  thee. 


PESTALOZZI  THE   WRITER.  77 

40.  "  The  pure  sentiment  of  truth  and  wisdom  is  formed 
in  the  narrow  circle  of  our  personal  relations,  the  circum- 
stances which  suggest  our  actions,  and  the  powers  we  need 
to  develop. 

49.  "  The  performance  of  acts  which  are  contrary  to  our 
inward  sense  of  right  takes  from  us  the  power  of  recognising 
truth,  and  our  principles  and  impressions  lose  in  nobleness, 
simplicity,  and  purity. 

50.  "  And  thus  all  human  wisdom  rests  on  the  strength  of 
a  heart  that  follows  truth,  and  all  human  happiness  on  this 
feeling  of  simplicity  and  innocence. 

60.  "  A  man's  domestic  relations  are  the  first  and  most 
important  of  his  nature. 

61.  "A  man  works  at  his  calling,  and  bears  his  share  of 
the  public  burdens,  that  he  may  have  undisturbed  enjoyment 
of  his  home. 

62.  "Thus  the  education  which  fits  a  man  for  his  pro- 
fession and  position  in  the  State  must  be  made  subordinate 
to  that  which  is  necessary  for  his  domestic  happiness. 

63.  "The  home  is   the   true   basis  of  the  education  of 
humanity. 

64.  "  It  is  the  home  that  gives  the  best  moral  training, 
whether  for  private  or  public  life. 

70.  "  A  man's  greatest  need  is  the  knowledge  of  God. 

71.  "  The  purest  pleasures   of  his  home  do  not  always 
satisfy  him. 

72.  "His  weak,  impressionable  nature  is  powerless  without 
God  to  endure  cc  n  itraint,  suffering,  and  death. 

94.  "  God  is  the  Father  of  humanity,  and  His  children  are 
immortal. 

135.  "  Sin  is  both  the  cause  and  effect  of  want  of  faith, 
and  is  an  act  opposed  to  what  a  man's  inmost  sense  of  good 
and  evil  t^nS  him  to  be  right. 

168.  "  It  is  because  humanity  believes  in  God  that  I  am 
contented  in  my  humble  dwelling. 

175.  "  I  base  all  liberty  on  justice,  but  I  see  no  certainty  of 
justice  in  the  world  so  long  as  men  are  wanting  in  upright- 
ness, piety,  and  love. 

178.  "The  source  of  justice  and  of  every  other  blessing  in 
the  world,  the  source  of  all  brotherly  love  amongst  men,  liea 
in  the  great  conception  of  religion  that  we  are  the  children 
of  God. 


78  PESTALOZZI:  HIS  LIFE  AND    WORK. 

180.  "  That  Man  of  God  who,  by  His  sufferings  and  death, 
restored  to  men  the  sense  that  God  is  their  Father,  is  indeed 
the  Saviour  of  the  world.  His  teaching  is  justice  itself,  a 
simple  philosophy  of  practical  value  for  all,  the  revelation  of 
God  the  Father  to  his  erring  children." 

The  Evening  Hour  does  not  seem  to  have  aroused  much 
attention ;  indeed,  the  great  majority  of  people  were  incapable 
of  appreciating  its  real  merit.  It  was  a  more  popular  book, 
and  one  written  in  an  easier  and  more  agreeable  style,  that 
first  gave  Pestalozzi  a  literary  reputation,  and  drew  him  out 
of  his  retirement. 

About  this  time  the  Zurich  Council,  anxious  to  put  things 
on  a  more  modern  footing,  had  drawn  up  certain  regulation? 
concerning  the  dress  of  the  officials  who  maintained  order  in 
the  town.  To  Pestalozzi,  who  was  always  strongly  attached 
to  old-fashioned  simplicity,  the  change  thus  introduced  seemed 
most  ridicxilous,  and  one  day,  in  a  humorous  vein,  he  wrote  a 
satire  on  the  plan  for  u  changing  crooked,  dirty,  and  unkempt 
guards  into  erect,  clean,  and  tidy  ones."  He  sent  the  paper 
to  Zurich,  to  his  friend  Fiissli  the  bookseller,  whose  brother 
the  painter,  happening  to  see  it  one  day,  was  so  struck  by  it 
that,  after  reading  and  re-reading  it,  he  exclaimed,  "  To  a  man 
who  can  write  like  this,  his  pen  is  a  fortune  in  itself!  "  This 
opinion,  confirmed  by  other  competent  judges,  gave  great 
delight  to  Fiissli,  who  repeated  it  to  Pestalozzi,  at  the  same 
time  urging  him  to  write.  The  solitary  of  Neuhof  was  little 
inclined  to  take  the  advice,  believing  himself  quite  incapable 
of  ever  succeeding  as  an  author. 

"  For  ten  years,"  he  said,  "  I  have  read  nothing,  and  lived 
only  with  ignorant  people.  I  could  hardly  write  a  sentence 
without  a  mistake."  But  at  last  he  allowed  himself  to  be 
persuaded.  "I  would  even  have  made  periwigs,"  he  said 
afterwards,  "  to  get  bread  for  my  wife  and  child." 

He  accordingly  set  to  work  to  read  Marmontel's  Moral 
Tales,  and  had  made  as  many  as  seven  successive  attempts 
to  imitate  this  style  of  composition,  without  being  at  all  satis- 
fied with  his  work,  when  suddenly  the  idea  occurred  to  him 
to  draw  a  picture  of  the  peasants  he  knew  so  well.  He  would 
faithfully  paint  their  vices  and  their  poverty,  but  he  would 
also  faithfully  paint  the  elements  of  moral  and  physical  re- 
generation that,  in  spite  of  all  their  degradation,  they  stil] 


PESTALOZZI  THE    WRITER.  79 

retained,  and  in  this  way  he  would  still  be  working  towards 
his  favourite  end. 

This  sudden  conception  was  the  saving  of  his  work.  From 
this  time  he  wrote  without  trouble  and  without  stopping, 
without  even  preparing  a  plan  beforehand,  and  Leonard  2nd 
Gertrude  flowed  from  his  pen  in  one  unbroken  stream.  Too 
poor  to  buy  paper,  he  wrote  between  the  lines  in  an  old 
account  book,  and  in  a  few  weeks  the  book  was  completed. 

He  then  asked  a  friend  to  read  it.  The  friend  did  so,  and 
pronounced  it  interesting,  but  horribly  incorrect,  and  "  want- 
ing in  literary  style."  As  he  further  offered  to  correct  it  for 
him,  Pestalozzi  gratefully  accepted  the  offer ;  but  when  his 
MS.  was  returned,  it  was  little  more  than  a  string  of  high- 
sounding  phrases,  the  peasants  talking  like  pedants,  and  all 
the  truth  and  naturalness  having  disappeared. 

Pestalozzi  naturally  could  not  consent  to  publish  the  work 
thus  disfigured,  and  in  his  embarrassment  was  on  the  point 
of  giving  up  all  idea  of  doing  so,  when  another  of  his  friends 
came  to  his  rescue.  This  was  Iselin,  of  Basle,  who,  under- 
standing the  real  value  and  bearing  of  the  manuscript,  pre- 
pared it  for  the  press  by  correcting  the  mistakes,  and 
persuaded  Decker,  a  bookseller  in  Berlin,  to  undertake  its 
publication.  The  price  Decker  paid  Pestalozzi  was  rather 
less  than  a  shilling  a  page. 

Leonard  and  Gertrude  appeared  in  1781 ;  it  was  the 
first  of  the  four  volumes  which  afterwards  formed  the  com- 
plete work.  It  had  an  immediate  and  immense  success ; 
most  of  the  papers  praised  it,  and  extracts  were  inserted  in 
many  almanacs.  The  Agricultural  Society  at  Berne  ad- 
dressed a  letter  of  congratulation  to  the  author,  with  a  gift 
of  fifty  florins,  and  a  gold  medal  of  the  same  value.  On  the 
medal  was  a  crown  of  oak,  with  the  words :  Civi  optimo. 

Though  Pestalozzi  was  now  visited  and  made  much  of  by 
numbers  of  distinguished  people,  he  retained  all  his  simple- 
mindedness.  It  is  even  said  that  one  day,  having  been 
invited  out  to  dinner,  and  his  host  having  sent  his  carriage 
for  him.  he  made  the  footman  sit  in  the  carriage  beside  him. 
Charles  de  Bonstetten  pressed  him  to  come  to  his  country- 
house  to  stay,  and  several  other  influential  people  made  simi- 
lar overtures  to  him,  but  he  refused  to  leave  Nexihof. 

Leonard  and  Gertrude  is  but  a  simple  story,  though 
graphic  and  touching,  of  that  village  life  which  Pestalozzi 


8o  PESTALOZZI:  HIS  LIFE  AND    WORK. 

knew  so  well.  Leonard  is  an  honest  fellow,  full  of  good 
intentions,  but  fond  of  drink.  At  one  time  his  love  for  his 
wife  and  children,  whose  ruin  he  is  causing,  induces  him  to 
make  the  best  resolutions ;  at  another,  the  influence  of  bad 
companions  drags  him  into  evil  again.  Gertrude,  his  wife, 
is  an  excellent  mother,  gentle,  hard-working,  and  sensible. 
By  dint  of  hard  work,  patience,  and  perseverance,  she  saves 
her  family  by  saving  her  husband.  The  bailiff,  Hummel, 
who  is  also  the  village  innkeeper,  is  a  cunning,  unscrupulous 
man.  He  takes  advantage  of  his  position  to  get  foolish  men 
to  his  house  to  drink  and  run  into  debt,  and  then  hastens 
their  ruin,  that  he  may  grow  rich  on  the  spoil.  Arner,  the 
new  squire,  is  a  man  of  noble  ideas,  and  a  generous  heart ; 
it  is  he  who  supports  Gertrude  in  her  trouble,  and  baffles  the 
plans  of  the  bailiff. 

In  Leonard  and  Gertrude  the  characters  are  so  admir- 
ably drawn  that,  after  having  read  the  book,  we  seem  to 
know  all  the  personages  as  well  as  if  we  had  lived  with  them. 
That,  however,  is  not  its  chief  merit.  In  Pestalozzi's  view, 
this  story  was  only  another  way  of  popularizing  his  ideas,  by 
showing  how  education  can  raise  the  people  and  make  them 
happy.  Into  Gertrude's  mouth  he  puts  his  views  as  to  the 
method  in  which  children  should  be  taught  and  made  to  take 
part  in  the  work  of  the  home,  and  he  uses  Arner  to  prove 
how  much  can  be  done  by  a  kind  and  enlightened  adminis- 
tration towards  helping  and  improving  the  moral  condition  of 
the  poor.  But  the  story  is  so  life-like  that  the  intention  to 
teach  never  appears. 

It  is  not  surprising,  then,  that  the  public  read  it  simply  as 
a  healthy  and  interesting  novel.  Their  very  praise  showed 
Pestalozzi  that  he  had  not  yet  attained  his  end.  He  accord- 
ingly wrote  another  book,  intended  to  show  the  use  that 
might  be  made  of  Leonard  and  Gertrude  in  the  education 
of  children,  and  to  bring  out  more  clearly  the  lessons  it 
contained.  Its  title  was:  The  Instruction  of  Children  in 
the  Home.  This  book  was  never  printed,  either  because 
Pestalozzi  was  not  satisfied  with  it,  or  because  he  foresaw 
that  it  would  be  very  little  read.  Niederer,  however,  who 
at  one  time  had  the  MS.  in  his  possession,  afterwards  pub- 
lished a  part  of  it  in  his  Notes  on  'Pestalozzi.  The  first 
chapter  runs  as  follows : 


PESTALOZZI  THE    WRITER.  81 


CHAPTER  I. — A  man  whose  heart  is  good,  and  who  yet 
makes  his  wife  and  children  very  unhappy. 

There  is  one  woman  in  Bonal  who  brings  up  her  children 
better  than  all  the  others.  Her  name  is  Gertrude  (1);  her 
husband,  who  is  a  mason  (2),  is  called  Leonard  (3).  They 
have  (4)  seven  children,  who  (5)  work  from  morning  till 
evening,  and  are  obedient,  good-tempered,  clean,  careful,  and 
fond  of  each  other.  The  father's  failing  (6)  is  that  he  often 
allows  himself  to  be  enticed  to  the  inn,  where  he  sometimes 
acts  (7)  like  a  madman. 

(8)  The  village  where  this  family  has  the  misfortune  to 
live  has  been  so  demoralized  for  more  than  thirty  years,  that 
(9)  most  of  the  present  inhabitants  care  neither  for  law  nor 
gospel. 

The  fault  is  really  (10)  due  to  the  late  squire,  who  died 
a  few  weeks  ago.  This  (11)  man  took  less  interest  in  his 
people  than  (12)  in  his  dogs  and  game,  with  the  result  that 
(13)  there  is  nothing  but  misery  in  his  villages,  and  that 
they  are  filled  with  men  who  suck  the  very  heart's  blood  of 
the  people.  The  worst  of  these  blood-suckers  (14)  is  Hummel, 
the  bailiff  of  Bonal.  His  house  is  full  every  day  (15)  of 
cunning  scoundrels,  whose  sole  occupation  and  amusement 
it  is  to  lay  snares  for  simple,  honest  folk,  and  rob  them  of 
their  money.  They  know  the  good-natured  Leonard  (16), 
whom  they  encourage  to  drink  and  gamble,  and  so  deprive 
him  almost  daily  of  the  fruit  of  his  toil  (17).  But  he  always 
repents  bitterly  the  next  morning,  and  (18)  his  heart  bleeds 
when  he  sees  Gertrude  and  her  children  without  bread  (19) 
He  dares  not  look  Gertrude  in  the  face ;  his  eyes  fill  when 
he  takes  one  of  his  children  in  his  arms,  and  he  often  weeps 
bitter  tears  in  secret. 

Gertrude  is  the  best  wife  in  the  village,  but  (20)  as 
Leonard  cannot  resist  the  seductions  of  the  inn,  she  and  her 
children  (21)  are  in  danger  of  losing  father  and  cottage, 
of  being  separated,  and  of  falling  into  the  direst  poverty. 

(22)  Gertrude  sees  the  extent  of  the  danger,  and  is  sore 
troubled  by  it.  She  cannot  forget  it  for  a  moment,  and  when 
bringing  grass  from  the  meadow,  or  hay  from  the  barn,  or 
when  filling  her  spotless  pails  with  milk,  she  has  always 
present  with  her  the  same  terrible  thought  (23)  that  meadow, 
barn,  cow,  nay,  her  very  cottage  may  soon  no  longer  be  hers. 


82  PESTALOZZI:  HIS  LIFE  AND    WORK. 

When  (24)  her  children  surround  her  and  nestle  to  her 
bosom,  her  trouble  is  still  greater,  and  often  (25)  when  her 
precious  little  ones  are  folding  their  innocent  hands  in 
prayer  to  the  Father  in  heaven,  her  heart  is  rent  with 
anguish. 

(26)  Hitherto,  however,  she  had  succeeded  in  hiding  from 
her  children  her  silent  tears,  but  (27)  when,  on  the  Wednes- 
day before  Easter,  her  husband  was  even  later  than  usual 
in  coming  home,  she  could  not  restrain  her  grief.  The  chil- 
dren noticed  her  tears,  and  cried  with  one  accord  (28),  "  Oh, 
mother,  you  are  crying ! "  (29)  With  grief  on  their  faces 
they  clung  about  her,  sobbing  aloud  in  their  terror.  For  the 
iirst  time  the  very  baby  looked  into  his  mother's  eyes  with- 
out smiling,  for  he  saw  in  them  nothing  but  despair.  (30) 
Gertrude,  feeling  that  her  heart  must  break,  burst  out  into 
loud  sobs,  the  children  weeping  with  her.  (31)  At  this 
moment  the  mason  opened  the  door  unperceived,  for  (32) 
Gertrude  had  hidden  her  face  in  the  bed.  (33)  The  chil- 
dren did  not  notice  him  either ;  they  had  no  eyes  for 
anything  but  their  mother's  grief,  and  clung  about  her  in 
helpless  wonder.  And  thus  their  father  found  them. 

(34)  God  in  heaven  sees  the  tears  of  the  afflicted,  and 
puts  an  end  to  men's  sorrows,  and  (35)  it  was  this  goodness 
of  God  that  now  made  Leonard  a  witness  of  this  most  painful 
scene.  (36)  As,  pale  and  trembling,  he  stammered  a  few- 
broken  words,  the  mother  and  children  became  aware  of 
his  presence.  (37)  The  children's  sobs  at  once  ceased. 
"  Mother,  mother,"  they  cried,  "  here's  father  come  home !  " 
It  is  thus  that  when  a  wild  flood  or  devouring  fire  ceases  its 
ravages,  the  first  terror  subsides,  and  is  succeeded  by  a 
dumb,  calm  sorrow. 

QUESTIONS. 

(1)  What  is  the  name  of  the  woman  in  Bonal  who  brings 
up  her  children  better  than  all  the  rest  ?  (2)  What  is  her 
husband's  name?  (3)  What  is  he?  (4)  How  many  chil- 
dren has  he  ?  (5)  How  do  the  children  behave  ?  (6)  What 
is  the  father's  failing  ?  (7)  How  does  he  often  act  when  he 
is  at  the  inn?  (8)  What  is  the  state  of  the  village?  (9) 
What  is  the  result  of  this  demoralization  ?  (10)  Whose 
fault  is  it  chiefly?  (11)  Why  is  it  his  fault  ?  (1'J)  What 
did  he  consider  more  than  his  people  ?  etc.,  etc. 


PESTALOZZI  THE    WRITER.  83 


INSTRUCTIVE  TRUTHS. 

1.  Children  who  are  well  brought  up  are  obedient,  good- 
tempered,  clean,  tidy,  and  affectionate. 

2.  In  the  ale-house  men  sometimes  act  like  madmen. 

3.  It  is  the  same  with  towns  and  villages  as  with  indi- 
viduals :  demoralization  ends  in  unhappiness. 

4.  Demoralized  men  respect  neither  law  nor  gospel. 

5.  The  more  demoralized   a   country  is,   the  more  is  it 
infested   by  clever  scoundrels   whose   only   occupation  and 
livelihood   consists   in   cheating  honest,  simple  folk  out  of 
their  money. 

6.  He  who  thinks  less  of  his  inferiors  than  of  his  dogs  or 
preserves,  is  the  cause  of  much  evil  in  the  world,  and  incurs 
a  grave  responsibility. 

7.  There  is  a  certain  kind  of  repentance  which  has  no 
reality,  and  is  without  effect  on  men's  actions. 

8.  A  bad  conscience  deprives  men  of  the  power  of  helping 
themselves. 

9.  A  bad  father  brings  a  thousand  troubles  on  his  wife 
and  children. 

10.  When  children  are  good   and   thoughtful,   kind  and 
God-fearing,  their  troubles  cause  their  parents  double  pain. 

11.  God  who  is  in  heaven  puts  an  end  to  man's  distress. 

Such  was  the  beginning  of  the  great  work  by  which  Pesta- 
ozzi  hoped  to  show  the  public  that  Leonard  and  Gertrude 
was  not  merely  a  tale,  but  a  popular  manual  of  education  for 
every  age. 

The  author,  however,  gave  up  the  idea  of  publishing  it, 
and  we  cannot  help  thinking  that  he  was  right.  But  he  was 
anxious  to  continue  the  story  he  had  begun  with  so  much 
success,  and  in  1783  a  second  volume  of  Leonard  and 
Gertrude  appeared,  in  1785,  a  third,  and  in  1787,  a  fourth. 

The  fourth  volume  was  dedicated  to  Felix  Battier,  a 
merchant  in  Basle,  by  whose  help  he  had  been  able  to  con- 
tinue at  Neuhof,  after  the  failure  of  his  first  experiments. 
In  this  dedication,  dated  the  1st  April,  1787,  Pestalozzi 
expresses  himself  as  follows : 

"  My  friend !  you  found  me  a  bruised  plant  by  the  way- 
B:de,  and  you  preserved  me  from  being  trodden  under  foot. 
Read  these  pages,  and  accept  my  thanks,  for  my  most  im- 


64  PESTALOZZI:  HIS  LIFE  AND    WORK. 

portant  views  would  never  have  ripened  without  your  help. 
The  burden  of  my  experiences  is  still  heavy  upon  me.  I 
still  have  the  picture  of  my  work  before  me,  but  only  as  in 
a  dream.  As  long  as  I  breathe  I  shall  keep  my  end  steadily 
in  view,  and  shall  only  be  happy  in  so  far  as  I  succeed  in 
realizing  the  ideas  which  inspired  my  first  undertakings." 

The  four-volume  work  contains  a  complete  account  of  the 
regeneration  of  the  village  of  Bonal,  the  result  of  the  com- 
bined effects  of"  law,  religion,  education,  and  a  careful 
administration.  Pestalozzi  called  it,  Leonard  and  Gertrude  : 
a  Book  for  the  People,  but  "the  people"  took  very  little 
notice  of  it.  The  numerous  readers  of  the  first  volume  had 
enjoyed  it  simply  as  a  novel,  without  in  the  least  caring  for 
the  lessons  it  contained.  The  three  other  volumes,  in  which 
the  action  is  less  sustained  and  less  dramatic,  and  in  which 
educational,  economical,  and  social  questions  occupy  a  very 
large  place,  had  much  less  success.  They  had  no  interest 
for  any  but  the  saost  thoughtful  people,  and  even  thought- 
ful people  found  parts  of  them  beyond  their  comprehension, 
so  far  was  their  author  ahead  of  his  time.  The  reforms  he 
advocated  were  then  felt  to  be  entirely  impracticable,  and 
yet  most  of  the  great  economical  and  moral  improvements 
of  which  Switzerland  is  proud  to-day  were  suggested  by 
Pestalozzi  in  this  book. 

We  find,  for  instance,  the  abolition  of  commonage,  the 
division  of  unproductive  parish-land,  only  requiring  the  care 
of  an  owner  to  become  a  source  of  wealth,  the  redemption 
of  tithes,  the  institution  of  savings-banks,  the  organization 
of  reformatory  schools,  the  abolition  of  hanging,  and,  lastly, 
the  establishment  of  good  primary  schools,  caring  no  less  for 
moral  than  material  needs.  But  for  some  of  these  reforms 
Switzerland  had  to  wait  thirty  years  after  the  publication 
of  Leonard  and  Gertrude,  for  others  sixty,  for  others 
eighty. 

Count  Zinzendorf,  the  Austrian  Minister  of  Finance,  had 
vainly  endeavoured  to  induce  Pestalozzi  to  go  to  Vienna. 
On  the  26th  of  April,  1784,  after  receiving  the  continuation 
of  Leonard  and  Gertrude,  he  wrote  to  him  as  follows  : 

"  Your  plans  and  efforts  for  the  education  of  the  poor,  and 
the  reform  of  vicious  children,  and  more  particularly  what- 


PESTALOZZI  THE    WRITER.  85 

ever  you  think  necessary  for  the  instruction  of  the  people, 
and  whatever  you  think  should  form  the  object  of  legis- 
lative measures,  will  have  a  great  importance  in  my  eyes, 
and  I  shall  receive  with  the  greatest  pleasure  everything 
you  write  on  this  subject." 

And,  again,  on  the  19th  December,  1787,  he  writes : 

"  I  have  read  the  fourth  volume  twice.  From  page  164  it 
is  of  the  deepest  interest,  and  develops  views  of  great  im- 
portance for  all  legislation  affecting  the  masses.  To  carry 
out  your  ideas,  the  first  thing  to  do  would  be  to  attempt  to 
get  Arner's  views  shared  by  the  whole  of  the  nobility,  who 
are  almost  the  only  owners  of  property,  that  they  might  have 
both  the  inclination  and  'courage  to  bring  their  children  up  in 
his  spirit  side  by  side  with  the  country  children,  and  be  con- 
tent to  live  on  their  estates." 

In  his  reply  of  the  18th  January,  1788,  Pestalozzi  says : 

"  A  few  statesmen  and  magistrates  have  indeed  praised 
the  fourth  volume,  but  the  mass  of  readers  have  found  it  very 
uninteresting  from  page  164.  .  .  . 

"  Education  being  the  centre  from  which  everything  should 
start,  the  State  should  consider  this  the  most  important  part 
of  its  work,  and  make  everything  else  subordinate  to  it.  If 
this  matter  is  properly  attended  to,  the  private  interests  of 
sovereigns  will  be  the  more  easily  looked  after,  and  the 
relations  between  the  local  and  central  authorities  will  be 
all  the  more  satisfactory. 

"  Let  us  hope  that  those  who  are  the  leaders  of  humanity 
will  soon  arrive  at  the  conviction  that  human  progress  and 
improvement  is  their  chief,  nay,  their  only  concern.  For 
my  part,  I  am  certain  that  sooner  or  later  the  difficulties 
in  the  way  of  such  an  education  of  the  people  as  I  desire 
will  vanish,  and  that  princes  themselves  will  be  the  first 
to  encourage  it,  and  lend  their  assistance  to  those  who  are 
the  most  capable  of  directing  it  aright."  * 

We  have  lately  re-read  the  four  volumes  of  Leonard  and 
Gertrude,  after  a  long  interval,  and  have  been  much  struck 

We  have  borrowed  these  extracts  from  Pompee's  interesting  work, 
M  Studies  of  the  Life  and  Works  of  J.  H.  Pestalozzi."    Pads,  1850. 


86  PESTALOZZI:  HIS  LIFE  AND    WORK. 

by  the  richness,  truth,  and  variety  of  the  views  which  have 
been  lying  hidden  there  for  ninety  years.  In  the  strength 
of  Pestalozzi's  convictions  and  in  his  deep  sympathy  with 
misfortune  in  any  shape,  lies  the  secret  of  the  eloquence  and 
real  pathos  of  his  writings.  It  may  be  said  that  his  intel- 
lect borrows  its  breadth  and  sagacity  from  his  heart,  for  it 
is  his  heart  that  fills  him  with  such  intelligent  sympathy  for 
the  suffering,  the  weak,  and  needy. 

It  is  worthy  of  notice  that  in  this  picture  of  the  vices 
of  a  degraded  people,  complete  as  it  is  in  other  respects, 
Pestalozzi  makes  no  mention  of  impurity.  He  is  as  s  lent 
about  libertinism,  and  everything  connected  with  it,  as 
if  his  countrymen  had  been  all  saints,  and  nowhere  will  a 
single  word  be  found  which  might  n«t  be  read  by  anybody. 

In  the  first  volume  a  few  lines  have  been  replaced  by 
dots,  and  the  author  explains  in  a  note  that  this  passage  was 
suppressed  because  a  child  of  ten  on  hearing  it  read  aloud 
exclaimed  that  it  was  "  very  rude." 

A  French  translation  of  the  first  volume  of  Leonard  and 
Gertrude,  by  the  Baroness  de  Guimps,  was  published  at 
Geneva  by  J.  J.  Paschoud,  in  1826,  and  a  new  edition  was 
brought  out  a  few  years  ago.  It  is  much  to  be  regretted 
that  the  three  last  volumes  have  not  yet  been  translated. 

Cotta's  edition  of  the  complete  works  published  towards 
the  end  of  Pestalozzi's  life  does  not  include  the  whole  of  the 
fourth  volume  of  the  first  edition  of  Leonard  and  Gertrude, 
the  reason  being  that  the  author  wanted  to  revise  the  last 
part  of  it,  make  certain  additions,  and  write  a  sixth  part, 
an  intention  he  did  not  live  to  carry  out.  In  the  recent 
edition  published  by  Seyffarth,  Leonard  and  Gertrude  is  in 
five  parts,  but  the  fifth  part  is  merely  a  reproduction  of  the 
fourth  volume,  which  appeared  in  1787. 

Whilst  Pestalozzi  was  working  at  Leonard  and  Ger- 
trude, he  wrote  four  other  works,  which  were  published 
from  1781  to  1783,  and  of  which  we  have  not  yet  spoken, 
because  we  were  unwilling  to  interrupt  what  we  had  to  say 
about  the  book  which  made  his  literary  reputation. 

In  1779  a  Society  in  Basle  had  offered  a  prize  for  the  best; 
essay  on  the  following  subject :  How  far  is  it  advisable  to 
set  a  limit  to  personal  expense  in  a  small  free  state  where 
commerce  is  the  foundation  of  prosperity  ?  Twenty-eight 
essays  were  sent  in,  and  the  judges  divided  the  prize  be- 


PESTALOZZI   THE    WRITER.  87 

tween  a  professor,  named  Meister,  and  Pestalozzi,  who  were 
both  from  Zurich,  and  were  old  schoolfellows.  In  1781, 
Pestalozzi's  essay,  with  two  others,  was  published  in 
pamphlet  form  by  the  Society  that  had  given  the  prize. 

In  this  paper  Pestalozzi  pronounces  an  absolute  condem- 
nation of  sumptuary  laws  in  general,  for  reasons  which  we 
need  hardly  reproduce,  seeing  that  this  question  has  long 
been  settled,  and  has  little  interest  for  us  to-day.  At  the 
same  time  he  pleads  forcibly  for  liberty  in  commerce  and 
industry.  He  also  deplores  the  increase  of  luxury,  and 
suggests  means  by  which  it  may  be  stopped.  These  means 
must  be  purely  educational,  for  coercion,  prohibition,  and 
regulation  could  only  do  harm.  In  this  way  the  question 
which  had  been  proposed,  and  which  at  first  sight  seemed 
entirely  foreign  to  Pestalozzi's  work,  brings  him  back  to  his 
favourite  theme  of  education. 

He  would  have  education  fill  both  heart  and  mind  with 
such  high  aspirations  that  men  should  no  longer  be  capable 
of  finding  pleasure  in  the  refinements  of  material  life.  He 
would  have  the  rich  love  the  poor  so  well  as  to  hesitate  to 
flaunt  before  them  pleasures  which  are  not  within  their 
reach.  He  would  have  rulers  and  public  bodies  cease  to  set 
the  example  of  ostentatious  and  useless  expense. 

The  foregoing  is  but  a  poor  summary  of  the  chief  ideas 
which  make  this  essay,  written  before  the  second  volume 
of  Leonard  and  Gertrude,  still  interesting  to  us. 

In  1782  Pestalozzi  published  Christopher  and  Eliza; 
My  Second  Book  for  the  People.  But  this  title  deceived 
the  public.  They  expected  to  find  another  story  as  graphic 
and  interesting  as  the  volume  of  Leonard  and  Gertrude 
that  they  had  just  read,  whereas  the  new  work  was  nothing 
but  a  commentary  on  the  earlier  one. 

The  aim  of  the  author  was  to  bring  out  and  develop  the 
lessons  contained  in  the  first  volume,  lessons  which  his 
readers  had  missed.  He  had  chosen  the  form  of  a  dialogue 
between  Christopher  and  Eliza,  a  husband  and  wife  who 
read  a  chapter  of  Leonard  and  Gertrude  every  evening  in 
the  presence  of  their  son  Fritz  and  their  old  servant  Joost. 
In  this  way  Pestalozzi  directs  attention  to  a  number  of 
important  considerations,  all  bearing  on  the  morals,  comfort 
and  happiness  of  the  people. 

But  the  reading  of  this  bock  requires  a  more  sustained 


88  PESTALOZZI:  HIS  LIFE  AND    WORK. 

mental  effort  than  most  people  are  capable  of,  and  even  many 
who  might  have  profited  by  it,  but  who  began  to  read  merely 
for  the  sake  of  amusement,  soon  abandoned  the  attempt. 

Pestalozzi  here  made  the  same  mistake  that  he  often  made, 
a  mistake,  indeed,  which  on  more  than  one  occasion  proved 
fatal  to  his  attempts  to  propagate  his  doctrine.  The  truths 
which  he  himself  held,  as  it  were,  intuitively,  seemed  so 
simple  and  self-evident,  that  he  could  not  understand  how 
other  minds  could  fail  to  grasp  them,  and  never  doubted 
that  he  would  be  able  to  spread  them  by  writing  popular 
books. 

Christopher  and  Eliza  did  not  succeed  because  both  aim 
and  form  were  bad.  In  matter,  indeed,  it  was  perhaps 
better  than  Leonard  and  Gertrude,  being  richer  in  im- 
portant views  on  education  and  other  social  questions,  many 
of  which  views  are  still  of  value  to-day.  But  it  was  pro- 
bably Pestalozzi's  opinions  in  matters  of  this  sort  that 
hindered  the  success  of  his  book  amongst  educated  people, 
for  such  opinions  must  at  that  time  have  been  very  offensive 
to  the  upper  classes.  He  points  out,  for  instance,  that  the 
corruption  of  those  who  are  ruled  generally  results  from  the 
corruption  of  their  rulers,  and  that  the  vices  of  the  poor 
are  too  often  caused  by  the  vices  of  the  rich,  ideas,  we  think, 
which  no  one  would  dare  to  condemn  to-day  so  absolutely 
as  was  done  ninety  years  ago. 

It  was  after  having  failed  to  reach  his  end  with  Chris- 
topher and  Eliza  that  Pestalozzi  wrote  the  continuation 
of  Leonard  and  Gertrude. 

We  must  here  mention  a  publication  of  Pestalozzi's  on  a 
question  which  had  occupied  his  thoughts  ever  since  he  was 
quite  a  young  man.  He  was  still  a  law  student  in  Zurich 
when  two  young  girls  of  the  Canton  of  Vaud  were  condemned 
to  death  for  infanticide.  The  trial  made  a  great  stir  through- 
out Switzerland,  and  Pestalozzi  was  both  pained  and  in- 
dignant. At  first  he  refused  to  believe  in  the  possibility 
of  such  a  crime  against  nature,  but  when  upon  inquiry 
he  found  that  infanticide  was  not  only  possible,  but  frequent, 
he  set  himself  to  ascertain  the  causes  which  in  civilized  and 
Christian  Europe  led  young  women  to  commit  crimes  so 
monstrous  as  to  be  unheard  of  even  amongst  savage  nations. 

Accordingly,  in  1780,  after  a  long  study  of  the  question, 
he  wrote  a  pamphlet,  entitled,  On  Legislation  and  Infanti' 


PESTALOZZI  THE    WRITER.  89 

tide  ;  Facts  and  Fancies,  Investigations  and  Portraits.  The 
preface  of  the  first  edition,  which  was  published  in  Frankfort 
and  Leipsic  in  1783,  concludes  thus : 

"  I  have  considered  this  subject  for  many  years,  and  I 
ani  convinced  that  my  view  is  the  right  one.  But  I  know 
two  things :  in  the  first  place,  that  I  am  weak  and  cannot 
see  far  ;  and,  in  the  second,  that  truth,  as  men  see  it,  is 
never  entirely  free  from  error,  and  that  no  road  goes  quite 
straight  to  its  mark.  And  so  I  earnestly  hope  that  what  is 
false  in  my  opinions,  as  well  as  what  is  true,  may  be  made 
perfectly  clear." 

The  title  of  this  work  is  misleading,  since  the  author  only 
speaks  of  legislation  to  show  the  harm  it  has  done,  and  its 
powerlessness  to  prevent  immorality  and  the  crimes  to  which 
immorality  leads.  He  declares  in  a  note  that  his  object  is 
to  give  an  answer  to  the  question  :  What  are  the  best  means 
for  preventing  infanticide  ?  In  his  opinion  these  means  are 
purely  educational,  educational  that  is  in  the  widest  sense, 
and  he  would  have  parents,  teachers,  clergymen,  and  magis- 
trates lose  no  opportunity  of  using  their  influence  to  reform 
the  manners,  opinions,  and  conduct  of  people  of  all  ages. 
The  work  is  divided  as  follows  : 

1.  Introduction. 

2.  General  causes  of  infanticide,  resulting  from  legislation 
and  social  relations. 

3.  Examination  of  special  causes.     Eight  cases. 

4.  Results  of  this  examination,  corroborated  by  quotations 
from  official  records  of  trials  for  infanticide. 

5.  Means  for  prevention. 

We  shall  soon  have  occasion  to  return  to  this  work,  for 
in  the  interval  which  elapsed  between  its  composition  in 
1 780,  and  its  publication  in  1783,  much  of  it  was  printed  in 
the  pages  of  the  Swiss  News,  a  periodical  started  by  Pesta- 
lozzi  about  this  time,  and  of  which  we  must  now  give  some 
account. 

At  this  period  of  his  life,  when  no  practical  undertaking 

was  any  longer  possible  to  him,  Pestalozzi  was  indefatigably 

active  with  his  pen,  and  always  in  the  direction  of  his  one 

great  object,  the  improvement  of  the  condition  of  the  people 

* 


90  PESTALOZZI:  HIS  LIFE  AND    WORK. 

by  education.  Eager  to  seize  every  opportunity  of  reaching 
his  end,  he  was  often  working  at  several  different  subjects 
at  the  same  time,  and  as  what  was  written  first  was  not 
always  published  first,  it  is  sometimes  hard  to  determine  the 
exact  chronological  order  of  his  works. 

As  the  best  means  for  making  his  views  more  widely 
known,  Iselin  had  advised  him  to  publish  a  newspaper. 
Accordingly,  on  the  3rd  of  January,  1782,  there  appeared 
a  paper,  consisting  of  sixteen  duodecimo  pages,  with  the 
title,  the  Swiss  News.  This  paper  continued  to  appear 
every  Thursday  till  the  end  of  the  year,  and  the  whole  of  it 
forms  two  volumes,  which  are  very  rare  and  very  little 
known. 

The  contents  are  of  a  most  varied  nature,  including,  amongst 
other  things,  short  moral  stories,  dialogues,  fables,  and  verse. 
But  the  variety  is  more  apparent  than  real,  for  the  author's 
favourite  ideas  are  always  recognizable,  no  matter  what  their 
dress.  The  farther  he  gets,  the  more  clearly  does  he  explain 
his  plans  of  reform,  so  that  the  interest  of  his  paper  is  con- 
tinually increasing. 

As  early  as  the  second  number  there  is  a  fragment  of  the 
essay  on  infanticide,  which,  together  with  his  other  writings, 
attracted  the  attention  of  the  most  distinguished  princes 
of  the  time.  The  Emperor  Joseph  II.,  for  instance,  and  the 
Grand  Duke  Leopold  of  Tuscany,  both  endeavoured  to  apply 
Pestalozzi's  views  to  the  improvement  of  the  condition  of 
their  subjects,  and  particularly  to  the  reform  of  penal  legis- 
lation and  of  prison  discipline,  and  with  this  object  instructed 
their  ministers  to  communicate  with  the  author  of  Leonard 
and  Gertrude. 

Numbers  19  to  24  of  the  Swiss  News  contain  a  scheme 
for  a  penitentiary  system  so  complete  in  every  detail,  that 
it  might  have  been  drawn  up  in  the  middle  of  the  present 
century,  and  indeed  might  still  be  consulted  with  profit. 
The  author  supposes  that  a  prince,  whom  he  does  not  hesitate 
to  call  Duke  Leopold,  has  consulted  Arner  (the  lord  of  Bonal 
in  Leonard  and  Gertrude),  as  to  the  best  system  of  State 
prisons.  Pestalozzi  first  gives  the  Duke's  letter,  and  then 
Arner's  reply,  which  is  doubtless  the  same  as  that  he  made 
to  the  Grand  Duke  at  the  request  of  his  Minister. 

Unfortunately  for  the  Grand  Duchy,  Leopold  was  soon 
called  to  replace  Joseph  II.  on  the  throne  of  Austria,  but  he 


PESTALOZZI  THE    WRITER.  91 

had  already  done  an  immense  amount  of  good,  and  there 
is  every  reason  for  thinking  that  the  influence  of  Pestalozzi's 
ideas  may  be  traced  in  the  admirable  institutions  which  for 
a  long  time  placed  Tuscany  in  the  vanguard  of  civilization, 
and  thanks  to  which  the  plains  of  the  Arno  are  still  culti- 
vated by  the  flower  of  the  Italian  peasantry. 

But  it  is  education  that  occupies  the  chief  place  in  the 
Swiss  News.  In  very  many  things  Pestalozzi  still  shows 
himself  to  be  a  disciple  of  Rousseau,  though  his  popular  and 
practical  spirit,  and  the  weight  he  attaches  to  moral  and 
religious  development  already  separate  him  widely  from  the 
Genevan  philosopher.  The  quotations  that  follow  will  be 
a  sufficient  proof  of  this : 

Volume  ii.,  page  11.  "  Everything  that  raises  humanity 
to  purer  pleasures  is  of  use  to  man,  who  is  certainly  destined 
to  develop  all  the  powers  which  have  been  given  him,  and 
thus  to  rise  to  the  height  of  whatever  circumstances  can 
favour  and  utilize  this  development." 

Page  24.  "  In  this  state  of  things,  rulers  and  teachers 
have  only  to  guide  the  progress  of  the  knowledge  and  pleasures 
of  the  century  with  all  the  power  and  wisdom  they  possess, 
in  order  that  the  people  may  lose  nothing  that  is  still  good, 
may  thoroughly  understand  their  duty,  and  gladly  do  what- 
ever enables  them  to  live." 

Page  157.  "  Why,  oh  men,  do  you  serve  God,  if  it  is  not 
to  sanctify  yourselves  and  free  yourselves  from  sin,  to  which 
you  are  the  more  inclined  the  less  you  fear  God  and  the 
less  you  serve  Him.  The  service  that  you  render  to  God 
preserves  you  from  your  greatest  dangers.  It  is  thus  a 
service  that  you  render  to  yourselves,  and  is  only  true  in 
so  far  as  it  is  useful." 

Page  158.  "  Your  God  and  Saviour  seeks  to  lead  you  by 
victory  over  your  passions  to  a  wise  knowledge  of  life,  and 
by  a  wise  knowledge  of  life  to  the  worship  of  the  invisible." 

Page  159.  "  Love  is  the  only  real  worship  that  man  can 
offer  to  God,  and  the  only  source  of  real  faith.  Love  alone 
leads  man  to  life ;  without  it  the  earth  holds  nothing  but 
death  and  perdition.  The  man  without  love  is  without  hope. 
He  who  is  a  slave  to  envy,  hatred,  and  anger,  falls  into 
despair.  A  man's  best  powers  forsake  him  if  he  love  not  his 
brother,  and  he  cannot  love  his  brother  if  he  have  no  rever- 


92  PESTALOZZI:  HIS  LIFE  AND    WORK. 

ence  for  God.  And  thus  the  forgetfulness  of  God  is  a  cause 
of  weakness^and  death." 

Page  167.  "  Oh,  my  country,  may  you  be  enabled  to  recog- 
nize that  it  is  the  domestic  virtues  which  determine  the 
happiness  of  a  nation." 

Page  171.  "  On  the  throne  and  in  the  cottage  man  has 
an  equal  need  of  religion,  and  becomes  the  most  wretched 
being  on  the  earth  if  he  forget  God." 

Page  173.  "  See  what  a  mortal  man  is  without  God ; 
he  has  nothing  on  earth  because  he  hopes  for  nothing  in 
heaven ;  whereas  he  who  fears  God  has  everything  on  earth 
because  he  hopes  for  everything  in  heaven." 

Page  209.  "  The  child  at  his  mother's  breast  is  the  weak- 
est and  most  dependent  of  human  creatures,  and  yet  he  is 
already  receiving  the  first  moral  impressions  of  love  and 
gratitude." 

Page  211.  "  Morality  is  nothing  but  a  result  of  the  de- 
velopment in  the  child  of  these  first  sentiments  of  love  and 
gratitude. 

"  The  first  development  of  the  child's  powers  should  come 
from  his  participation  in  the  work  of  his  home,  for  this  work 
is  necessarily  what  the  parents  understand  best,  what  most 
absorbs  their  attention,  and  what  they  are  most  competent  to 
teach. 

"  But  even  if  this  were  not  so,  work  undertaken  to  supply 
real  needs  would  be  just  as  truly  the  surest  foundation  of  a 
good  education. 

"  To  engage  the  attention  of  the  child,  to  exercise  his  judg- 
ment, to  open  his  heart  to  noble  sentiments,  is,  I  think,  the 
chief  end  of  education ;  and  how  can  this  end  be  reached  so 
surely  as  by  training  the  child  as  early  as  possible  in  the 
various  daily  duties  of  domestic  life  ? 

"  Nothing  makes  a  greater  call  on  the  attention  than  work 
in  general,  because  without  close  attention  no  work  can  be 
well  done  ;  but  this  is  especially  true  of  work  which  children 
can  do  in  a  house,  for  it  varies  continually,  and  in  a  thou- 
sand ways,  and  compels  them  to  fix  their  attention  on  a  great 
number  of  different  objects. 

"  Further,  it  is  by  doing  all  sorts  of  work  at  an  early  age 
that  a  man  acquires  a  sound  judgment ;  for  if  his  work  is  to 
succeed,  the  different  circumstances  under  which  it  has  to  be 
done  must  be  thoroughly  understood ;  nor  can  the  child  help 


PESTALOZZI  THE    WRITER.  93 

being  struck  by  the  fact  that  failure  results  from  errors  in 
judgment. 

"  Finally,  work  is  also  the  best  means  of  ennobling  the 
heart  of  man,  and  of  preparing  him  for  all  the  domestic  and 
social  virtues.  For,  to  teach  a  child  obedience,  unselfishness, 
and  patience,  I  do  not  think  anything  can  be  better  than 
work  in  which  he  engages  regularly  with  the  rest  of  the 
family. 

"  As  a  general  rule,  art  and  books  would  not  replace  it  in 
any  way.  The  best  story,  the  most  touching  picture  the 
child  finds  in  a  book,  is  but  a  sort  of  dream  for  him,  some- 
thing unreal,  and  in  a  sense  untrue ;  whereas  what  takes 
place  before  his  eyes,  in  his  own  house,  is  associated  with 
a  thousand  similar  occurrences,  with  all  his  own  experience 
as  well  as  that  of  his  parents  and  neighbours,  and  brings  him 
without  fail  to  a  true  knowledge  of  men,  and  develops  in 
him  a  thoroughly  observant  mind." 

We  must  now  quote  a  passage  from  the  Swiss  News,  in 
•which  we  find  the  first  trace  of  a  thought  that  became  the 
fundamental  principle  of  Pestalozzi's  method  of  education, 
the  analogy,  that  is,  between  the  development  of  the  moral 
and  intellectual  man,  and  the  physical  development  of  the 
plant ;  in  other  words,  the  organism  of  education. 

In  volume  i.,  page  407,  we  read  : 

"  Summer  evening !  Who  can  describe  thee,  when  thou 
comest  at  last,  after  a  day  of  oppressive  heat  ?  Everything 
that  breathes  rejoices  in  thy  freshness;  everything  that 
breathes  has  need  of  thee.  The  roe  leaves  his  hiding-place 
in  the  forest  to  graze  and  breathe  more  freely  in  the  open. 
The  flocks,  too,  gambol  with  enjoyment  in  the  cool  pastures, 
and  man,  weary  with  the  heat  of  the  day,  lies  down  till  the 
sun  return. 

"  Summer  day !  Teach  this  worm  that  crawls  on  the  earth 
that  the  fruits  of  life  are  formed  amid  the  heat  and  storms 
of  our  globe,  but  that  to  ripen,  they  have  need  of  the  gentle 
rains,  the  glittering  dew,  and  the  refreshing  rest  of  night. 
Teach  me,  summer  day,  that  man,  formed  from  the  dust  of 
the  earth,  grows  and  ripens  like  the  plant  rooted  in  the  soil." 

One  more  quotation  from  the  Swiss  News  and  we  have 
done.  In  a  few  lines  towards  the  end  of  the  introduction, 


94  PESTALOZZI:  HIS  LIFE  AND    WORK. 

Pestalozzi  paints  one  of  the  most  touching  and  original 
features  of  his  own  character.  He  had  been  reproached  with 
being  still  somewhat  of  a  child,  and  he  replies  : 

"  I  hope  to  remain  so  to  the  grave  ;  it  is  so  pleasant  to  be 
still  a  child,  to  believe,  to  trust,  to  love,  to  be  sorry  for  your 
mistakes  and  folly,  to  be  better  and  simpler  than  knaves  and 
rogues,  and  at  last,  by  their  very  wickedness,  wiser.  It  is 
pleasant  to  think  nothing  but  good  of  men,  in  spite  of  all 
you  see  and  hear,  to  still  believe  in  the  human  heart,  even 
though  you  may  be  deceived  every  day,  and  to  forgive  the 
wise  as  well  as  the  foolish  of  this  world,  when  each,  in  his 
own  way,  would  lead  you  astray." 

The  two  volumes  of  the  Swiss  News  are  certainly  one  of 
the  most  remarkable  productions  of  Pestalozzi's  genius ;  the 
richness,  originality,  and  independence  of  his  thought,  free 
as  yet  from  all  foreign  influence,  are  there  displayed  in  all 
their  fulness. 

We  have  said  that  the  paper  was  chiefly  concerned  with 
education.  At  first  sight  this  does  not  seem  true,  but  the 
fact  is  that  the  author  is  considering  the  broad  question  of 
the  general  education  of  humanity  in  its  relation  to  man- 
ners and  customs,  social  systems  and  governments,  and  hence 
politics  occupy  a  large  share  of  his  attention. 

But  Pestalozzi  was  asking  for  reforms,  and  reforms  were 
distasteful  to  the  educated  portion  of  his  readers.  Amongst 
other  things,  he  advocated  the  abolition  of  capital  punish- 
ment, a  measure  which,  thanks  to  the  Grand  Duke  Leopold, 
had  already  had  good  results  in  Tuscany,  but  for  which 
Switzerland  perhaps  was  not  yet  ready.  However  this  may 
have  been,  subscribers  began  to  fall  off,  and  at  the  end  of 
the  first  year  the  paper  had  to  be  discontinued. 

With  the  fourth  volume  of  Leonard  and  Gertrude, 
published  in  1787,  closes  the  first  series  of  Pestalozzi's 
writings.  Ten  years  of  silence  are  about  to  follow,  in  the 
course  of  which  the  great  French  Revolution  will  be  accom- 
plished, giving  a  new  phase  to  the  literary  activity  of  the 
philosopher  of  education.  Let  us  pause,  then,  a  moment,  and 
examine  the  position  he  had  now  reached. 

The  starting-point  of  his  work  had  been  his  pity  for  the 
poor.  He  had  seen  that  the  evil  cannot  be  cured  either 


PESTALOZZI  THE    WRITER.  95 

by  charity,  legislation  or  preaching.  Education  seemed  to 
him  the  only  effective  remedy,  but  he  saw  that  an  education 
was  wanted  which,  based  upon  the  child's  daily  life,  should 
set  in  action  all  the  powers  for  good  contained  in  germ  in  his 
nature,  and  keep  him  continually  employed.  This  is  why  he 
wished  to  combine  instruction  with  manual  labour,  feeling 
that  such  a  combination,  if  made  living  and  attractive,  would 
be  not  only  a  means  of  livelihood,  but  a  strengthening  and 
salutary  exercise  for  heart,  mind,  and  body. 

Having  failed  in  his  attempt  to  give  the  world  a  practical 
example  of  this  method  of  regeneration,  he  tried  to  make  it 
known  by  his  writings,  and  explained  it  in  such  a  way  as  to 
make  it  clear,  he  thought,  to  everybody,  and  capable  of  being 
carried  out  in  every  village  and  every  family.  But  then 
various  obstacles  occurred  to  him :  first,  the  mechanical 
methods  of  education  and  religion,  then  custom  and  prejudice, 
and  various  other  hindrances  which  were  more  or  less  con- 
nected with  the  social  and  political  system  of  his  time.  It 
is  these  last  obstacles  that  he  is  attacking  every  time  he 
touches  on  politics. 

As  for  the  mechanical  methods  of  education  which  were 
generally  in  use  at  that  time,  they  disgusted  the  child  with 
work,  filled  his  head  with  nothing  but  words,  and  left  him 
incapable  of  doing  anything  without  help.  Pestalozzi's  object 
was  to  find  a  simple,  natural,  efficacious  system  to  replace 
them.  The  search  for  such  a  system  had  already  occupied 
him  a  long  time.  It  became  more  and  more  the  chief  work 
of  his  life,  and  finally  ended  in  the  reform  which  has  immor- 
talized his  name. 

At  the  time  of  which  we  speak,  he  had  already  recognized 
several  very  important  principles  of  his  method.  For  instance, 
the  true  starting-point  is  in  personal  impressions,  whether 
physical  or  moral.  Words,  rules,  and  regulations  should  not 
come  till  afterwards.  Hence,  practice  in  talking  before 
reading.  For  the  child,  religious  impressions,  prayers, 
reading  of  the  Bible,  but  no  catechism,  no  dogmatic  teaching. 
His  tendency  to  compare  the  education  of  the  child  to  the 
development  of  the  plant  was  already  visible,  and  this  com 
parison,  which  is  profoundly  true,  implies  the  idea  of  organic 
development  not  only  in  the  physical  man,  but  in  the  intel- 
lectual and  moral  man.  And  this  idea  is  just  what  distin- 
guishes Pestalozzi  from  those  who  preceded  him ;  the  old 


96  PESTALOZZI:  HIS  LIFE  AND    WORK. 

school  professed  to  build  up  upon  a  child  a  complete  structure 
of  knowledge  and  morality ;  the  new  contents  itself  with 
merely  giving  the  necessary  support,  direction,  and  means 
of  activity  to  the  child's  faculties,  which,  left  to  develop  by 
themselves,  will  produce  a  perfect  man. 

f  After  1787,  Pestalozzi  remained  ten  years  without  pub- 
lishing anything.  The  chief  reason  of  this  silence  was  the 
necessity  for  providing  food  for  his  family,  for,  notwithstand- 
ing the  success  of  his  first  book,  his  writing  did  not  enable 
him  to  live.  In  the  first  place,  he  was  writing  for  an  idea, 
and  not  for  the  public  taste ;  and,  in  the  second,  jf  a  man 
/  is  to  make  money,  even  as  a  writer,  he  must  possess  a  certain 
/  commercial  aptitude,  which,  as  we  know,  Pestalozzi  was 
I  entirely  without.  Lavater  was  perfectly  right  when  he  said 
to  Mrs.  Pestalozzi :  "  If  I  were  a  prince,  I  would  consult 
your  husband  on  everything  connected  with  the  improvement 
and  happiness  of  my  people,  but  I  would  not  entrust  him 
with  a  single  farthing  to  spend/'  Indeed,  after  publishing 
all  the  books  we  have  mentioned,  Pestalozzi  was  just  as  poor 
as  ever.  He  had,  however,  recovered  his  health  and  strength, 
and  now,  for  the  sake  of  his  wife  and  child,  he  set  to  work 
again  on  his  land,  with  his  wonted  energy  and  enthusiasm. 
But  his  attention  was  soon  diverted  by  the  French  Revo- 
lution which  had  just  burst  upon  the  world,  and  which 
he  was  inclined  at  first  to  consider  a  fortunate  circumstance, 
and  likely  to  remove  many  an  obstacle  to  the  reforms  he  was 
meditating.  A  short  essay  on  the  causes  of  the  Revolution 
which  he  wrote  at  this  time  remained  unpublished  till  1872, 
when  it  was  discovered  by  Seyffarth  and  printed  at  the  end 
of  the  sixteenth  and  last  volume  of  his  edition  of  Pestalozzi's 
works.  Pestalozzi  had  given  the  manuscript  to  Mrs.  Niederer, 
who,  at  her  husband's  death,  had  given  it  to  Krusi,  whose 
son,  Doctor  Gr.  Krusi,  entrusted  it  to  Seyffarth.  Mrs.  Niederer 
herself  had  originally  intended  to  publish  it,  and  in  1846  had 
written  an  introduction,  in  the  course  of  which  occurs  the 
following  striking  passage : 

"  Pestalozzi,  the  enthusiast  and  prophet,  whose  whole  long 
and  troubled  life  was  spent  in  the  cause  of  education,  once 
said  to  me : 

" '  In  another  fifty  years,  when  these  times  have  passed 
away  and  a  new  generation  has  taken  our  place,  when  Europe 


PESTALOZZI  THE    WRITER.  97 

has  been  so  undennined  by  a  repetition  of  the  same  mistakes, 
and  by  the  terrible  consequences  of  the  ever-increasing 
misery  of  the  people,  that  the  very  foundations  of  society  aro 
shaken,  then  perhaps  will  the  lesson  of  my  life  at  last  be 
understood,  then  will  the  wisest  come  to  see  that  it  is  only 
by  ennobling  men  that  an  end  can  be  put  to  the  discontent 
and  suffering  of  the  people,  and  to  the  abuses  of  despotism, 
whether  on  the  part  of  the  many  or  the  few.' 

"  For  twenty  years  now  the  earth  has  covered  the  mortal 
remains  of  this  remarkable  man,  and  more  than  half  a  century 
has  elapsed  since  he  wrote  down  his  inmost  convictions  in 
this  essay. 

"  If  he  did  not  publish  it  in  his  lifetime,  it  must  undoubt- 
edly have  been  because  there  was  then  some  danger  in 
speaking  thus  openly,  and  because  he  was  unwilling  to  im- 
peril in  the  least  degree  the  educational  work  to  which  he 
was  devoting  his  life." 

An  analysis  of  the  Causes  of  the  French  Revolution  would 
'  take  us  too  far.  Pestalozzi's  own  words,  as  quoted  by  Mrs. 
Niederer,  must  suffice  to  show  the  aim  and  importance  of  this 
short  work. 

But  although  Pestalozzi  was  attracted  to  the  Revolution 
at  the  outset,  he  was  soon  shocked  by  the  wild  crimes  per- 
petrated in  France  in  the  name  of  the  principles  of  1789. 
In  his  youth  he  had  thrown  himself  into  the  local  reforms 
at  Zurich  with  all  the  ardour  of  a  revolutionary,  but  now 
his  horror  of  violent  revolutions  was  no  less  great  than  his 
enthusiasm  for  peaceful  progress.  He  thus  found  himself 
in  rather  a  false  position  between  the  opponents  and  friends 
of  the  Revolution,  so  he  merely  looked  on  in  silence,  aud 
devoted  all  his  energy  to  the  cultivation  of  his  land. 

During  this  long  period  Pestalozzi  only  left  Neuhof  twice.  In 
1792  he  went  to  Leipsic  to  see  his  sister  married,  and  turned 
the  occasion  to  advantage  by  visiting  several  German  Training 
Schools,  with  which,  however,  he  was  not  at  all  satisfied.  It 
was  at  this  time  also  that  he  made  the  acquaintance  of  Klop- 
atock,  Goethe,  Wieland,  Herder,  and  Jacobi.  About  a  year 
later  he  passed  a  few  months  at  Richterswyl  with  his  mother's 
brother,  Doctor  Hotz,  from  whose  house  he  addressed  to  his 
friend  Nicolovius,  of  Berlin,  the  letter  which  has  so  often  been 
quoted  to  prove  that  he  was  not  a  Christian. 


98  PESTALOZZ1:  HIS  LIFE  AND    WORK. 

This  friend  of  the  poor  and  destitute,  who  had  ruined  him- 
self at  Neuhof  in  his  attempt  to  come  to  their  rescue,  found 
in  Nicolovius  a  man  who,  being  in  thorough  sympathy  with 
his  views,  and  warmly  attached  to  the  cause  that  he  himself 
had  so  vainly  sought  to  help,  seemed  likely  to  render  him 
valuable  assistance.  The  two  men  thus  became  great  friends, 
Pestalozzi  telling  the  other  all  that  was  in  his  heart. 

We  translate  the  whole  of  Pestalozzi's  letter,  as  much  of  it, 
that  is,  as  has  ever  been  published.  It  will  be  seen  that  in 
his  simple-mindedness  and  extreme  conscientiousness  he  judges 
himself  with  unnecessary  severity.  This,  however,  is  not  the 
only  occasion  on  which  he  did  himself  a  similar  injustice. 

"  RicJiterswyl,  October  1st,  1793. 

"  My  friend  !  Lost  in  the  torrent  of  my  life,  I  have  drunk 
but  little  at  those  pure  sources  whence  the  wisest  and  best 
men  draw  such  Divine  strength  when  they  make  the  sanctifi- 
cation  of  their  being  the  first  concern  of  their  lives.  My 
work,  alas  !  is  all  sullied  by  love  of  self  and  vulgar  desires. 

"It  is  true  that  from  my  youth  up  I  have  always  been 
eager  and  zealous  for  all  that  is  good,  but  the  mire  of  the 
world  through  which  1  had  to  make  my  way  had  another  law 
that  I  knew  not,  and  for  which  I  was  unprepared,  so  that  at 
the  critical  moment  of  my  maturity  I  was  laden  beyond  my 
strength,  unsettled  and  thrown  out  of  harmony  with  myself. 
And  so  I  followed  the  dead  path  of  my  century,  wavering 
between  my  feeling,  which  led  me  to  religion,  and  my  judg- 
ment, which  kept  me  away,  and  letting  my  heart's  religious 
ardour  cool,  without,  however,  deciding  against  religion. 

"  In  the  matter  of  God's  relations  with  man,  I  like  neither 
the  poor  wisdom  of  books,  nor  the  observation  of  angles  by 
which  Lavater  sought  to  supplement  it.  Truth,  indeed,  lay 
hidden  within  husks  which  repelled  me,  and  as  I  did  not  find 
that  it  brought  men  any  certain  comfort  or  satisfaction,  I 
gradually  lost  the  essential  strength  that  the  fear  of  Grod  lends 
to  calm  and  noble  souls.  And  so,  feeling  that  I  was  lacking 
in  all  that  most  purifies  our  human  powers,  the  stupefaction 
that  followed  my  short-lived  dream  of  education  entirely 
destroyed  my  peace  of  mind,  and  deprived  me  of  my  inward 
strength.  My  mistakes  in  administration  in  this  matter  long 
kept  me  the  slave  of  an  error,  or  rather  of  a  half-truth,  of 


PESTALOZZI  THE    WRITER.  99 

which  I  had  made  an  idol,  and  in  the  unspeakable  sorrow 
which  was  the  consequence  of  this  idolatry,  vanished  what 
little  strength  of  religious  feeling  I  had  ever  had. 

"  J  cannot  then  and  must  not  hide  the  fact  that  truth,  as 
I  apprehend  it,  is  founded  upon  the  earth,  and  is  far  from 
reaching  the  sublime  heights  to  which  faith  and  love  can  raise 
humanity.  You  know  Giulphi's l  opinion ;  it  is  also  mine. 
J  doubt,  not  because  I  look  on  doubt  as  the  truth,  but  because 
the  sum  of  the  impressions  of  my  life  has  driven  faith,  with 
its  blessings,  from  my  soul. 

"  Thus  impelled  by  my  fate,  I  see  nothing  more  in  Chris- 
tianity than  the  purest  and  noblest  teaching  of  the  victory 
of  the  spirit  over  the  flesh,  the  one  possible  means  of  raising 
our  nature  to  its  true  nobility,  or,  in  other  words,  of  establish- 
ing the  empire  of  the  reason  over  the  senses  by  the  develop- 
ment of  the  purest  feelings  of  the  heart. 

"  That  is  what  I  take  to  be  the  essence  of  Christianity,  but 
I  do  not  think  many  men  are  capable,  from  their  nature,  of 
becoming  true  Christians ;  in  fact,  I  believe  men  in  general 
to  be  as  incapable  of  reaching  this  true  nobility  as  of  worthily 
wearing  an  earthly  crown. 

"  I  believe  Christianity  to  be  the  salt  of  the  earth ;  but 
however  highly  I  value  this  salt,  I  believe  that  gold,  stone, 
sand,  and  pearls  have  an  independent  value,  and  that  every- 
thing must  be  considered  in  itself.  I  believe  even  that  the 
very  mire  of  the  earth  has  its  laws  and  legitimate  rights  quite 
independently  of  Christianity ;  and  though  I  am  well  aware 
of  the  narrowness  of  my  point  of  view  when,  in  my  search  for 
truth,  I  limit  my  investigations  to  these  laws  and  these 
rights,  my  voice  still  seems  to  me  like  a  voice  crying  in  the 
wilderness  to  prepare  a  way  for  Him  who  is  to  come.  Some- 
times, indeed,  I  seem  scarcely  to  know  either  what  I  am  doing, 
or  whither  T  tend,  and  yet  I  find  myself  irresistibly  driven 
to  say  what  I  do  ;  and  however  much  I  may  suffer  from  the 
fatal  circle  which  encompasses  me,  and  from  which  there  is 
no  escape,  everything  I  say  is  at  least  in  earnest.  I  stop  then 
far  short  of  the  perfection  of  my  own  character,  and  know 
nothing  of  the  heights  to  which  I  foresee  that  humanity  may 
some  day  rise.  But  enough  for  the  present,  my  friend,  of 
the  defects  of  my  Christianity.  .  .  . 

1  In  Leonard  and  Gertrude. 


loo          PESTALOZZI:  HIS  LIFE  AND    WORK. 

"  I  am  at  present  at  Rich  terswyl.  Doctor  Hotz  has  left 
home  for  some  months,  and  during  his  absence  I  am  staying 
in  his  house,  with  no  business  to  attend  to,  and  no  one  to 
disturb  me.  Rejoice,  my  friend,  at  the  happiness  which  is 
to  be  mine  for  a  time." 

It  was  now  that  Pestalozzi  began  his  correspondence  with 
Fellenberg,  the  celebrated  founder  of  the  Hofwyl  institutions 
His  letters  give  us  valuable  information  as  to  the  view  he 
took  of  the  French  Revolution,  and  as  to  the  hopes,  and  more 
especially  the  fears,  with  which  it  filled  him  for  Switzerland. 
Fellenberg  had  just  the  qualities  which  Pestalozzi  lacked; 
he  was  practical,  prudent,  firm,  and  a  good  administrator. 
Could  these  two  men  have  worked  steadily  together,  the 
success  of  the  philanthropic  enterprises  in  which  they  were 
both  engaged  would  probabl}-  have  been  ensured  ;  but  even 
their  great  friendship  was  powerless  to  keep  two  such  different 
natures  long  in  harmony.  Pestalozzi's  generous  enthusiasm 
was  wounded  by  Fellenberg's  cold  reasoning,  and  the  almost 
rustic  simplicity  of  the  Zurich  democrat  accorded  but  ill  with 
the  somewhat  ostentatious  dignity  of  the  Bernese  patrician. 
Fellenberg  several  times  offered  him  help  in  his  troubles,  but 
the  perfect  sympathy  and  understanding  which  alone  would 
have  made  it  possible  for  the  two  men  to  undertake  a  work 
in  common  never  existed  between  them. 

The  letters  we  are  about  to  quote  were  written  between 
the  years  1792  and  1794.  They  have  a  special  interest  from 
the  fact  that  no  cloud  having  yet  arisen  between  the  two 
friends,  Pestalozzi  speaks  quite  openly  of  all  that  is  in  his 
mind. 

PESTALOZZI  TO  FELLENBERG. 

"Neuhof,  September  15M,  1792. 

"  Dear  and  noble  friend  !  Thank  you  once  more  for  the 
many  proofs  you  have  given  me  of  your  friendship.  I  am 
greatly  rejoiced  at  the  thought  of  spending  a  few  weeks  with 
you  at  the  beginning  of  November.  Between  now  and  then 
the  fate  of  France  will  be  decided.  If  she  is  beaten,  we  shall 
be  better  able  than  now  to  judge  of  what  is  really  important 
to  humanity  in  her  affairs ;  if  she  still  resists,  her  very  faults 
will  be  forgiven  by  those  in  whom  they  now  excite  such 
unreasonable  fury.  In  either  case  the  world  will  gain  some- 


PESTALOZZ1   THE    WRITER.  101 

thing ;  and  if  France  is  worthy  of  liberty,  she  will  certainly 
have  it.    ... 

"  I  am  informed  that  several  members  of  the  National 
Assembly  have  been  told  that,  in  the  present  passionate  excite- 
ment of  tho  French  people,  nobody  could  point  out  to  them 
the  truths  they  stand  in  need  of  better  than  I  could ;  but  I 
doubt  whether  I  could  do  any  good." 

"  Neuhof,  October  4t7i,  1792. 

"I  agree  with  you  entirely  on  the  points  you  mention. 
And  yet  I  think  it  very  important  to  persuade  France  of  the 
harm  that  would  result  to  herself  and  the  good  cause  from 
any  hostile  action  against  us ;  it  would  be  much  worse  than 
she  thinks,  and  than  people,  carried  away  by  passion,  care 
to  tell  her.  You  know  I  am  not  one  of  these.  All  my  life 
I  have  ardently  desired  the  emancipation  of  the  people,  and 
yet  no  one  was  ever  more  firmly  convinced  than  I  am  that  it 
can  only  be  brought  about  by  preserving  all  the  conditions 
of  public  order. 

"  I  can  quite  see  that  such  manifestations  by  Switzerland 
as  you  speak  of  might  do  great  good  to  the  country ;  and  after 
the  last  declarations  of  the  French,  I  am  inclined  to  think 
that  something  of  the  sort  might  be  necessary.  I  very  much 
wish  we  could  talk  the  matter  over.  Be  quite  happy  about 
me,  my  friend ;  I  am  more  than  prudent,  I  am  innocent,  and, 
in  the  face  of  my  innocence,  suspicions  would  only  confound 
those  who  were  suspicious.  My  country  has  no  more  faithful 
citizen  than  I,  but  my  opinion  in  matters  that  concern  the 
true  welfare  of  humanity  is  to  be  bought  by  no  man,  either 
French  or  Swiss. 

"  My  agriculture  swallows  up  all  my  time.  I  am  longing 
for  winter,  with  its  leisure.  My  time  passes  like  a  shadow, 
and  though  my  experience  may  be  ripening,  I  am  prematurely 
losing  the  power  of  expressing  my  ideas.  I  impatiently  long 
for  rest,  and  a  cell  where  I  should  be  free  from  cares. 
Here  I  am  never  free  from  weariness  and  disturbance." 

"  Neuhof,  November  19th,  1792. 

"  It  is  notorious,  too,  in  my  part  of  the  country  that  I  am  a 
'  Nationalist,'  and  am  going  to  Paris.  A  few  women,  friends 
of  the  clergy  in  the  neighbourhood,  cross  themselves  when 


102          PESTALOZZI:  HIS  LIFE  AND    WORK. 

they  meet  the  heretical  democrat.  I  quietly  await  the  result 
of  the  calumnies  to  which  this  will  probably  give  rise.  And 
yet  Leonard  and  Gertrude  will  always  be  a  proof  that  I 
almost  wore  myself  out  in  my  efforts  to  save  the  aristocracy, — 
as  much  of  it,  that  is,  as  was  worth  saving.  My  trouble, 
however,  only  excited  ingratitude,  so  much  so,  indeed,  that 
that  excellent  man,  the  Emperor  Leopold,  spoke  of  me  before 
he  died  as  a  good  Abbe  de  Saint  Pierre.  After  all,  nobody 
can  help  those  who  will  not  help  themselves,  and  there  ia 
nothing  commoner  than  to  see  people  who  have  been  the  cause 
of  their  own  ruin  trying  to  save  themselves  by  meanness  and 
falsehood." 

"  Neuhof,  December  5ift,  1792. 

"  I  want  a  talk  with  you  very  badly,  and  shall  certainly 
come  to  Berne  at  the  beginning  of  next  year.  I  am  already 
rejoicing  at  the  prospect.  I  have  decided  to  render  France 
what  assistance  I  can  by  writing  on  several  points  of  legis- 
lation. .  .  .  The  last  news  from  Berne  as  to  the  danger 
of  an  attack  on  our  country  is  more  reassuring.  I  am  all 
the  more  glad,  because  I  fancy  I  am  right  in  thinking  that 
this  war,  especially  at  first,  would  bring  about  a  split  in  the 
Confederation.  We  cannot,  indeed,  do  too  much  for  the  sake 
of  peace,  for  it  is  important  that  we  should  be  in  a  position 
to  give  the  people  throughout  Switzerland  as  much  liberty  aa 
will  ensure  their  warm  support  for  all  future  governments." 

"  Richterswyl,  November  15f7t,  1793. 

"  Thank  you  for  a  letter  in  which  your  love  of  good  carries 
you  certainly  too  far.  I  am  but  a  feeble  old  man  ;  there  are 
immense  gaps  in  my  knowledge,  my  intellectual  strength  is 
comparatively  small,  and  perhaps  my  only  merit  is  that  in 
most  things  my  will  is  not  governed  by  my  interests.  The 
little  I  have  done  for  truth  and  the  happiness  of  men  makes 
you.  in  your  love  for  humanity,  esteem  me  more  than  I 
deserve.  Do  not  think  me  ungrateful ;  but  I  know,  and 
indeed  ought  to  know,  how  weak  I  am. 

"Ah,  my  friend,  I  have  lived  many  years  in  a  state  of 
indescribable  misery,  and  my  experience  has  taught  me  much  ;  - 
amongst  other  things,  that  Nature  herself  bids  a  man  look 
to  his  own  interests  and  those  of  his  family.     My  own  early 
education,  unfortunately,  did  not  in  any  way  prepare  me  for 


PESTALOZZI  THE    WRITER.  103 

this  duty,  and  the  harm  is  irreparable.  Nor  is  my  son,  in 
this  respect,  any  better  off  than  I  am,  for  I  only  arrived  at 
a  clear  and  exact  idea  of  the  importance  of  special  training 
for  this  end  when  it  was  too  late.  But  now  I  have  made  up 
my  mind  that,  so  long  as  I  am  capable  of  doing  so,  I  shall 
devote  my  remaining  strength  to  completing  the  writings  I 
have  begun,  and  endeavour  to  make  profit  by  their  publica- 
tion. 

"  But,  my  friend,  this  will  not  be  an  easy  matter.  In  my 
desire  for  simplicity,  I  destroy  whole  pages  of  my  manu- 
scripts for  every  few  lines  I  keep.  You  would  not  believe 
what  long  and  painful  efforts  many  of  the  passages  that  seem 
so  simple  have  cost  me.  I  shall  never  be  quite  repaid  then 
for  all  my  trouble,  but,  thank  God,  I  have  never  stooped  to 
letting  a  word  stand  simply  for  the  sake  of  being  paid  for 
it.  It  is  certain  that,  from  a  pecuniary  point  of  view,  my 
system  is  a  very  bad  one  ;  but  I  hope  that  some  day,  when  I 
have  sufficiently  sacrificed  myself  in  this  way,  a  way  indeed 
which  is  likely  to  find  few  imitators  amongst  my  money- 
loving  brethren,  I  hope,  I  say,  that  after  a  time  I  shall  at 
last  realize  some  small  profit  from  a  complete  collection  of 
my  writings,  which  will  then  have  been  made  as  perfect  as 
possible.  When  that  time  comes,  I  shall  rely  principally 
upon  my  friends  for  co-operation  and  support.  But  how  can 
I  talk  to  you  at  this  length  on  a  mere  question  of  money ! 

"  And  yet,  my  friend,  the  happiness  of  the  world  largely 
depends  upon  its  wisdom  in  these  questions,  in  which  I 
personally  have  always  been  one  of  the  greatest  fools  in  the 
universe.  But  God  grant  that  in  higher  matters  I  may  be 
able  to  render  the  services  you  expect  of  me.  When  the 
book  I  am  at  present  engaged  on  is  finished,  I  will  come  to 
you.  I  know  that  you  will  be  all  the  better  pleased  that 
in  my  way  of  treating  my  subject  all  personal  interest  dis- 
appears, whether  in  the  democracy,  the  aristocracy,  or  the 
monarchy,  just  as  in  a  statement  of  the  principles  of  pure 
Christianity  all  personal  interest  in  a  particular  sect  should 
disappear.  .  .  . 

"If  you  should  hear  anything  certain  as  to  the  possibility 
of  peace,  I  entreat  you  to  send  me  a  line ;  for  if  the  war  con- 
tinues, we  shall  go  back  at  least  a  generation.  In  the  mean- 
time let  us  comfort  ourselves  by  doing  our  work  as  if  we  were 
ignorant  of  what  is  taking  place." 


104          PESTALOZZI:  HIS  LIFE  AND    WORK. 

11  SicJderswyl,  January  16£7i,  1794. 

"  The  times  in  which  we  live  are  like  those  hot  summer 
days  in  which  fruits  ripen  amid  thunder  and  hail,  to  the  gain 
of  the  whole,  but  to  the  detriment  of  certain  parts.  I  am 
most  anxious  to  see  you  this  spring ;  if  you  do  not  come  here, 
I  shall  come  to  Berne. 

"I  am  actively  engaged  in  thinking  out  my  new  work. 
What  do  you  think  of  this :  '  Who  are  those  who  suffer  most, 
and  run  the  greatest  danger  in  the  present  state  of  things  ? 
Is  it  not  those  who  possess  most  ?  And  ought  you  not  chiefly 
to  comfort  those  who  suffer  most  ? '  Striking  words ;  but 
before  giving  you  their  history,  I  should  like  to  have  your 
opinion  of  them. 

"  Fichte  is  making  a  commentary  on  Leonard  and  Ger- 
trude, from  the  point  of  view  of  Kant's  philosophy.  Baggesen 
urges  me  to  go  to  Denmark.  I  often  wish  I  were  ten  years 
younger,  or  rather,  that  I  were  still  as  strong  as  I  was  ten 
years  ago.  But  I  mean  to  make  the  fullest  use  of  the  flying 
hours,  and  am  grateful  to  you  and  to  all  others  who  are  help- 
ing me  gather  up  the  crumbs  of  my  wasted  life. 

"  I  am  very  glad  to  have  satisfied  myself,  from  a  conversa- 
tion with  Fichte,  that  my  experience  has  led  me  to  many  of 
the  same  results  as  Kant." 

These  letters  give  us  an  insight  into  Pestalozzi's  life  and 
thought  during  those  ten  years  of  seclusion,  when  there  were 
neither  published  writings  nor  practical  undertakings  to  bear 
witness  to  his  activity. 

In  this  correspondence  he  no  longer  speaks  of  his  favourite 
idea  of  a  school  for  poor  children,  the  failure  of  his  experi- 
ment being  still  too  recent  to  allow  him  to  see  any  possibility 
of  ever  meeting  with  complete  success ;  his  thoughts  turn 
rather  to  politics  and  the  coming  reforms  in  the  institutions 
of  his  country,  in  which  he  sees  help  for  the  realization  of 
his  plans  for  the  happiness  of  the  people. 

Wo  see  that  he  even  hopes  sometimes  to  induce  France  to 
listen  to  him,  and  by  the  influence  of  his  ideas  make  measures 
for  the  reform  of  public  education  one  of  the  fruits  of  the 
Revolution.  This  hope  would  seem  presumptuous  did  we 
not  know  that  it  was  to  some  extent  justified  by  a  decree  of 
the  National  Assembly,  which,  on  Sunday,  the  27th  of  August, 
1792,  had  solemnly  declared  citizens  of  the  French  Republic 


PESTALOZZI  THE    WRITER.  105 

all  the  men  of  that  time  who  were  distinguished  for  their 
efforts  on  behalf  of  humanity.  Pestalozzi  was  amongst  the 
number,  with  Bentham,  Payne,  Wilberforce,  Clarkson,  Wash- 
ington, Madison,  Klopstock,  Kosciusko,  and  others. 

Pestalozzi's  relations  with  Fichte,  of  which  mention  is  made 
in  these  letters  to  Fellenberg,  were  much  more  intimate  than 
has  generally  been  supposed.  Fichte  had  married  a  very  old 
friend  of  Mrs.  Pestalozzi's,  and  as  he  often  stayed  in  Zurich, 
a  great  friendship  had  sprung  up  between  the  two  thinkers, 
who,  in  1794,  spent  several  days  together  at  Richterswyl. 
We  shall  see  that  the  relations  which  thus  existed  between 
the  German  philosopher  and  the  Swiss  philanthropist,  contri- 
buted in  no  small  degree  to  the  subsequent  appreciation  in 
Germany  of  the  principles  and  work  of  the  great  educational 
reformer. 

.In  his  letters  to  Fellenberg,  Pestalozzi  often  speaks  of  cer- 
tain writings,  to  which,  in  spite  of  many  difficulties,  he  is 
in  the  habit  of  devoting  all  the  leisure  left  him  by  his 
agriculture.  These  works,  published  in  1797,  were  his 
Fables  and  his  Inquiry  into  the  Course  of  Nature  in  the 
Development  of  the  Human  Race.  Both  are  distingiiished 
from  his  other  books  by  a  very  marked  political  tendency. 
The  former  first  appeared  under  the  curious  title  of  Figures 
for  my  ABC  Book,  a  name  Pestalozzi  had  given  to  Leonard 
and  Gertrude,  because  it  contained,  as  he  said,  the  A  B  C  of 
wisdom  for  the  people.  The  figures  he  now  adds  to  it  are 
short  apologues,  intended  to  give  body,  as  it  were,  to  its 
moral  teaching.  The  title  of  Fables  only  appeared  in  the 
second  edition,  published  at  Basle,  in  1803,  and  is  scarcely 
suitable  to  the  nature  of  the  work. 

There  are  as  many  as  two  hundred  and  thirty-nine  of  these 
so-called  fables,  •  all  in  prose,  nearly  all  very  short,  and  all  \ 
containing    some   striking    and    original   truth    bearing   on  \ 
morality,  education,  society,  or  politics.     In  reading  the  book,  / 
we  are  struck  by  the  author's  imagination  no  less  than  by  his 
power  of  observation  and  reflection.     To  give  some  idea  ol 
the  fables,  we  cannot  do  better  than  append  a  few  : 

8.  THE  GRASS  AND  THE  MUSHROOM. 

The  Mushroom  said  to  the  Grass,  "  I  grow  in  an  instant, 
but  you  take  a  whole  year."      "  True,"  replied  the  Grass 
9 


106          PESTALOZZI:  HIS  LIFE  AND    WORK. 

11  whilst  I  am  acquiring  my  value,  you,  in  your  uselessness, 
may  come  and  go  a  hundred  times." 

2G.  THE  Two  COLTS. 

Two  colts,  as  like  as  two  eggs,  fell  into  different  hands. 
One  was  bought  by  a  peasant,  whose  only  thought  was  to 
harness  it  to  his  plough  as  soon  as  possible  ;  this  one  turned 
out  a  bad  horse.  The  other  fell  to  the  lot  of  a  man  who,  by 
looking  after  it  well,  and  training  it  carefully,  made  a  noblo 
steed  of  it,  strong  and  mettlesome. 

fathers  and  mothers,  if  your  children's  faculties  are  not 
carefully  trained  and  directed  aright,  they  will  become  not 
only  useless,  but  hurtful,  and  the  greater  the  faculties,  the 
greater  the  danger. 

53.  A  FOOL'S  FOUNTAIN. 

The  fountain  of  a  poor,  vain  fool  having  run  almost  dry, 
he  told  his  servant  to  stop  the  pipe  when  there  was  no  one 
near,  but  to  let  it  run  on  the  approach  of  strangers.  "  That 
will  only  make  the  fountain  worse,"  answered  the  servant, 
"and  there  will  often  be  no  water  just  when  it  is  most 
needed."  To  which  his  master  replied,  "  I  can  bear  anything 
so  long  as  people  do  not  know  that  my  fountain  is  dry." 

72.  THE  OAK  AND  THE  GRASS 

Said  the  Grass  to  the  Oak,  under  whose  shade  it  grew,  "  I 
should  thrive  better  in  the  open  than  under  your  shelter." 
"  Ungrateful  one  !  "  exclaimed  the  Oak,  "  you  forget  that 
every  winter  I  cover  you  with  my  leaves."  "  What !  "  cried 
the  Grass,  "  your  proud  branches  rob  me  of  sun,  dew,  and 
rain ;  your  roots  of  the  nourishment  of  the  soil ;  and  yet  you 
would  have  me  grateful  for  the  forced  alms  of  a  few  withered 
leaves,  which  serve  rather  to  foster  your  own  growth  than 
prevent  my  decay !  " 

74.  THE  CRUMBLING  EOCK. 

A  rock,  which  for  centuries  had  sheltered  cattle  from  sun 
and  rain,  was  crumbling  with  age.  Day  after  day  pieces 
broke  off,  and  fell  upon  the  animals,  till  at  last  they  fled  from 
the  place  where  they  had  formerly  loved  to  rest.  But  the 
old  herdsman,  half  blind  and  half  deaf,  could  not  understand 


PESTALOZZI  THE    WRITER,  107 

what  had  happened,  and  thought  they  had  been  bewitched  by 
an  enemy. 

It  is  sad  to  see  the  old  shelters  becoming  dangerous  ruins ; 
sadder  still  to  see  the  leaders  of  the  people  failing  to  under- 
stand the  danger. 

86.  THE  INTERIOR  OF  THE  HILL. 

A  simpleton,  seeing  a  hill  covered  with  beautiful  verdure, 
thought  that  it  must  be  good  earth  right  through ;  but  a  man 
who  knew  the  place  took  him  to  a  spot  where  the  interior 
was  exposed,  and  it  was  nothing  but  rock  and  gravel. 

The  hills  of  the  earth,  however  green  and  fertile  they  may 
be,  have  nearly  always  a  hard,  barren  subsoil.  Similarly, 
men,  however  noble  in  heart  and  mind,  are  seldom  without 
strata  of  rock  and  gravel  in  the  flesh. 

Even  when  outward  appearances  are  most  beautiful,  and 
most  rich  in  power,  honour,  and  dignity,  shut  in  below  the 
surface  are  the  vices  of  our  nature.  Hence,  however  high  a 
man  may  be  placed,  he  must  give  ear  to  the  precept :  "  Watch 
and  pray,  lest  ye  enter  into  temptation ;  for  the  spirit  truly 
is  willing,  but  the  flesh  is  weak." 

92.  THE  LIME-TREE  AND  THE  KING. 

A  King,  who  was  standing  alone  under  a  lime-tree,  was 
struck  by  the  beauty  of  its  foliage,  and  exclaimed :  "  Would  that 
my  subjects  held  to  me  as  these  leaves  hold  to  thy  branches ! " 

The  Tree  answered  him  :  "  I  am  for  ever  carrying  the  sap 
of  my  roots  to  each  of  my  leaves." 

97.  A  SIMPLETON'S  JUDGMENT. 

Some  magnificent  poplars  and  a  few  scrubby,  undersized 
oaks  grew  by  the  side  of  the  same  stream.  Simple  Simon 
therefore  concluded  that  the  poplar  makes  good  wood,  and 
the  oak  bad. 

I  know  teachers  who  judge  of  their  scholars,  pastors  of 
their  flocks,  and  rulers  of  those  they  govern,  with  no  more 
reason  than  Simple  Simon  judged  of  the  merits  of  the  oak 
and  the  poplar-tree. 


lo8          PESTALOZZI:  HIS  LIFE  AND    WORK. 

101.  ONE  OF  THE  BAD  EFFECTS  OF  PROVERBS. 

"  It  is  sad  that,  in  spite  of  his  feelings,  a  man  so  often  finds 
himself  obliged  to  be  unkind  to  his  horses !  "  said  a  kind- 
hearted  waggoner  one  day,  compelled  to  hurry  his  over- 
burdened beasts.  And  then  gradually  he  got  into  the  habit 
of  repeating  the  words  with  as  little  thought  as  Good-morning 
or  Good-night,  till  at  last  they  became  a  proverb  amongst  the 
waggoners  of  the  country ;  and  now,  any  wretched  fellow 
who  ill-treats  his  horses  or  his  oxen,  excuses  himself  with: 
"  It  cannot  be  otherwise  ;  a  waggoner  must  be  unkind  in 
spite  of  his  feelings." 

116.  THE  FEELING  OF  EQUALITY. 

A  shepherd,  who  fed  his  sheep  rather  poorly  but  all  alike, 
found  that,  as  a  rule,  they  were  satisfied.  But  one  day  he 
picked  out  a  dozen  for  better  treatment,  and  from  that 
moment  there  was  discontent  in  the  flock,  and  many  ewes 
died  of  vexation. 

117.  THE  LIMIT  OF  EQUALITY. 

A  Dwarf  said  to  a  Giant :  "  I  have  the  same  rights  as  you." 
"  True,  my  friend,"  replied  the  Giant ;  "  but  you  could  not 
walk  in  my  shoes." 

160.  THE  LORD  AND  HIS  VASSALS. 

"  I  do  a  great  deal  to  make  you  contented  and  happy,"  said 
a  great  lord  to  his  vassals.  "  True,  true,"  they  replied  with 
one  accord,  "  and  we  have  much  to  thank  you  for."  One 
peasant  only  did  not  speak.  He  was  silent  for  a  time,  and 
then  said :  "  May  I  ask  my  lord  a  question  ?  "  "  Certainly," 
was  the  reply. 

Peasant :  "  I  have  two  fields  of  corn,  one  richly  manured, 
but  badly  cultivated  and  full  of  weeds;  the  other  sparingly 
manured,  but  well  cultivated  and  clean.  Which  will  yield 
me  the  most  ?  " 

Lord :  "  The  second,  of  course,  since  you  have  made  it 
possible  for  the  corn  to  grow  freely." 

Peasant :  "  Well,  my  lord,  if,  instead  of  loading  us  with 
gifts,  you  would  be  good  enough  to  leave  us  to  manage  our 
own  affairs,  I  think  we  should  be  better  off." 


PESTALOZZI  THE    WRITER.  109 

176.  WHY  JUPITER  MADE  THE  LION  KING. 

The  animals  stood  before  Jupiter's  throne  awaiting  his 
decree,  most  of  them  believing  and  hoping  that  the  elephant 
would  be  appointed.  The  lion  had  as  domineering  an  air  as 
though  he  were  king  already,  but  the  elephant  moved  quietly 
to  and  fro  with  the  greatest  unconcern. 

Suddenly  the  voice  of  the  lord  of  the  thunder  was  heard : 
"  The  lion  is  king." 

"  My  choice  surprises  you,"  said  Jupiter  to  the  others,  who 
were  standing  open-mouthed  with  astonishment ;  "  you  must 
learn,  then,  that  the  elephant  needs  you  not,  having  intelli- 
gence and  talents  enough  to  be  self-sufficing ;  but  the  lion 
has  need  of  you,  and  as  he  is  able,  at  the  same  time,  to  make 
himself  respected,  I  appoint  him  to  be  king." 

197.  MEPHISTOPHELES  SINGS  THE  PRAISES  OF  A  BRAZEN 
TONGUE. 

The  princes  of  hell,  assembled  in  council,  complained  of 
the  slow  progress  of  the  kingdom  of  lying  and  injustice. 
"  The  violent  means,"  they  said,  "  that  our  servants  employ 
against  our  eternal  enemies,  truth  and  justice,  are  absolutely 
useless.  In  vain  do  we  make  martyrs  of  the  heroic  followers 
of  truth,  love,  and  justice ;  the  more  we  persecute  hell's 
enemies,  the  more  strength  do  they  seem  to  gain." 

After  a  moment's  silence,  Mephistopheles  rose  and  addressed 
the  assembly:  "It  is  true  that  our  servants  do  not  understand 
all  that  is  wanted  to  establish  our  sway  amongst  men.  They 
should  pursue  our  enemies  not  only  with  fire  and  sword,  but 
above  all  with  the  tongue.  They  must  learn  better  how  to 
throw  dust  into  men's  eyes  by  empty  words;  to  twist  injustice 
into  justice,  And  lying  into  truth;  to  make  straight  crooked, 
and  crooked  straight ;  to  pervert  the  truth  in  an  opponent's 
mouth  even  before  it  is  uttered ;  to  represent  all  manifesta- 
tions of  goodness,  kindness,  and  love  as  the  contemptible 
results  of  human  folly  and  weakness.  The  sole  strength  of 
our  enemies  lies  in  the  crumbs  of  love  and  truth  that  have 
fallen  to  them  from  heaven ;  but  this  gift  is  in  weak  hands, 
from  which,  if  we  be  but  bold  enough  of  speech,  we  may 
wrest  it.  A  clever,  brazen  tongue  cannot  be  too  highly 
praised,  for  it  is  always  associated  with  hatred,  injustice, 
harshness,  and  tying,  which  in  themselves  are  quite  enough 


no          PESTALOZZ1:  HIS  LIFE  AND    WORK. 

to  destroy  the  love  and  truth  that  heaven  has  bestowed  upon 
feeble  men." 

The  whole  of  hell  applauded  this  speech  of  the  prince,  and 
all  the  devils  obeyed. 

214.  How  THE  ANIMALS  UNDERSTAND  LIBERTY. 

King  Lion  one  day  asked  his  subjects  what  they  meant 
when  they  talked  of  liberty. 

Said  the  ox:  "I  should  think  it  the  most  desirable  liberty 
to  be  never  fastened  to  the  yoke,  but  always  to  the  manger." 

Said  the  monkey  :  "  I  shall  never  think  nvyself  free  so 
long  as  I  have  a  tail  and  a  hairy  skin.  Without  these 
disadvantages  I  should  be  quite  free,  for  I  should  be  a  man." 

Said  the  draught  horse :  "  I  feel  free  when  my  harness  is 
taken  off,  and  I  have  nothing  at  all  to  carry." 

Said  the  carrriage  horse  :  "  When  I  am  magnificently  har- 
nessed, and  drag  a  fine  carriage  for  a  short  distance,  I 
sometimes  feel  freer  than  the  noble  lord  behind  me." 

Said  the  ass  :  "  To  be  free  is  never  to  have  either  sack  or 
basket  upon  your  back."  . 

Said  the  sloth  :  "  If,  when  I  have  devoured  all  the  leaves 
on  my  branch,  somebody  would  be  good  enough  to  carry  me 
to  another  and  put  me  within  reach  of  the  leaves  I  so  much 
enjoy,  I  should  be  free  indeed." 

Said  the  fox :  "  And  I  should  be  free  if  my  prey  did  no 
cost  me  so  much  fear,  cunning,  and  patience." 

A  man  overheard  all  this  and  cried :  "  Surely  none  but 
animals  can  wish  for  this  sort '  of  liberty."  He  was  right: 
every  wish  for  such  liberty  as  is  only  fit  for  animals  stifles 
in  a  man's  soul  all  true  sense  of  real  liberty. 

In  this  same  year,  1797,  in  which  the  first  edition  of 
the  Fables  appeared,  Pestalozzi  published  his  Inquiry 
into  tlie  Course  of  Nature  in  the  Development  of  the 
Human  Race.  His  aim  was  to  study  the  law  of  man's 
natural  development,  and  by  so  doing  to  throw  light  on 
certain  points  of  moral  and  political  science,  and  furnish 
education  with  a  few  fundamental  principles.  In  other 
.words,  Pestalozzi  sought  to  give  some  philosophical  colour 
to  the  views  he  was  endeavouring  to  spread,  and  which  he 
had  hitherto  rather  felt  than  proved  to  be  true. 

In  his  previous  writings  he  had  either  described  concrete 


PESTALOZZI   THE    WRITER.  in 

facts  or  proclaimed  isolated  truths  ;  but  in  the  book  we  are 
now  considering  he  undertakes  a  serious  philosophical 
inquiry,  with  a  view  to  building  up  such  a  sound  and  com- 
plete system  as  will  explain  and  justify  his  views,  and  at 
the  same  time  give  them  a  centre  and  unity. 

This  new  method  was  not  much  to  Pestalozzi's  taste,  nor 
was  it  in  accordance  with  the  general  bent  of  his  mind  ;  it 
is  probable  indeed  that  he  would  never  have  adopted  it, 
had  he  not  been  persuaded  by  his  friend  Fichte,  the  philo- 
sopher, who,  accustomed  to  generalizations,  urged  the  Swiss 
philanthropist  to  formulate  the  philosophical  principle 
which  was  at  the  root  of  his  teaching  and  plans.  Fichte 
even  gave  him  certain  directions  for  the  work,  to  which 
Pestalozzi  devoted  himself  for  three  years  with  incredible 
zeal  and  assiduity. 

The  Inquiry  is  the  most  important  book  published  by 
Pestalozzi,  but  it  is  also  the  most  unsatisfactory.  The  very 
qualities  which  are  so  essential  in  a  work  of  this  kind — 
method  and  order — are  sadly  lacking;  there  are  far  too  many 
unnecessary  and  tedious  developments,  and  the  whole  book 
is  prolix  and  obscure.  The  result  was  that  it  met  with  no 
success,  as  the  author  himself  tells  us  in  How  Gertrude 
Teaches  her  Children,  published  in  1801.  The  passage  is 
as  follows : 

"  For  three  years  I  took  immense  pains  with  my  In- 
quiry, my  chief  object  being  to  co-ordinate  my  favourite 
ideas,  and  bring  my  natural  sentiments  into  harmony  with 
my  views  on  civil  law  and  morality.  But  my  work  was 
but  another  proof  of  my  incapacity.  .  .  . 

"  And  so  I  reaped  no  more  than  I  had  sown.  My  book 
had  no  more  effect  than  my  previous  labours,  nobody  under- 
stood me,  and  there  was  not  a  man  who  did  not  give  me  to 
understand  that  he  considered  the  whole  work  a  jumble  of 
nonsense.  Only  to-day  even,  a  man  of  some  distinction,  and 
a  friend,  said  to  me :  '  Surely,  Pestalozzi,  you  see  now  that 
in  writing  that  book  you  did  not  really  know  what  you 
meant.' " 

Niederer,  however,  who  was  afterwards  so  intimately  as- 
sociated with  Pestalozzi,  judged  differently.  Early  in  1801 
he  wrote  to  the  author  as  follows : 


H2          PESTALOZZI:  HIS  LIFE  AND    WORK. 

"  Your-  Inquiry  strikes  me  as  a  rough  but  solid  product 
of  that  psychological  intuition  which  is  peculiar  to  you; 
and  so  little  does  it  seem,  to  me  to  be  nonsense,  that  I  look 
upon  it  as  containing  a  most  valuable  discovery,  what  in- 
deed I  may  call  the  germ  of  your  whole  educational  method, 
Your  ideas  are  so  profound  and  suggestive  that  I  wish  you 
could  find  enough  quiet  leisure  to  arrange  them  somewhat 
more  clearly  ;  but  you  must  not  attempt  this  till  you  have 
put  your  educational  work  on  a  satisfactory  basis.1  The 
expression  of  your  views  will  then  probably  be  more  general 
and  complete,  and  more  intelligible  to  men  who  are  still 
unfamilar  with  the  new  point  of  view  you  have  thrown  open 
to  us." 

After  having  carefully  studied  this  book,  we  have  come  to 
very  much  the  same  conclusion  as  Niederer.  It  certainly 
contains  many  suggestive  truths,  not  yet  generally  recog- 
nized, which  go  far  to  explain  some  of  the  apparent  con- 
tradictions in  the  life  of  the  individual  and  of  humanity, 
which  might  help  to  solve  the  political  and  social  problems 
that  torment  our  age,  and  which  afford  a  broad  and  solid 
basis  for  Pestalozzi's  method  of  education.  But  with  all 
this,  the  book,  if  it  is  to  be  really  useful,  must  be  rewritten; 
and  since  the  author  did  not  follow  Niederer's  advice, 
some  capable  man  is  wanted,  first  to  saturate  himself  with 
Pestalozzi's  ideas,  and  then  to  restate  them,  and  make  of 
this  nonsense,  as  it  has  been  called,  a  new  work,  clearer 
and  more  systematic  than  the  original,  and  leading  to  more, 
definite  conclusions. 

After  what  we  have  said,  it  is  evident  that  we  cannot 
here  attempt  an  analysis  of  the  book.  It  will  be  enough  to 
give  a  general  notion  of  the  subjects  it  treats,  and  cite  a  few 
of  the  most  striking  ideas.  Pestalozzi's  aim  may  be  best 
stated  in  his  own  words : 

"  The  contradictions  which  apparently  exist  in  human 
nature  affect  very  few  people  so  keenly  as  they  affect  me. 
Even  when  I  was  beginning  to  grow  old,  I  felt  the  same 
need  that  I  had  always  felt  of  some  sort  of  free  and  useful 

1  This  letter  was  written  just  after  Pestalozzi  had  started  his  institu- 
tion at  Burgdorf. 


PESTALOZZI  THE    WRITER.  iij 

activity,  and  this  in  spite  of  the  fact  that  my  activity  hag 
always  been  vain  and  sterile  and  productive  of  little  con- 
tentment. 

"  But  now  at  last  I  feel  tired  and  sit  down  to  rest,  and 
yet  I  am  thankful  to  say  that  though  my  heart  is  suffering 
and  downcast,  I  am  still  able  to  ask  myself  with  all  the 
simpleuess  of  a  child  :  What  am  I,  and  what  is  humanity  ? 
What  have  I  done,  and  what  does  humanity  do  ? 

"  I  am  anxious  to  know  what  my  life,  such  as  it  has  been, 
has  made  of  me ;  and  what  life,'  such  as  it  is,  makes  of 
humanity  ? 

"  I  am  anxious  to  find  out  the  real  sources  of  my  activity 
and  of  the  opinions  which  have  resulted  naturally  from  the 
circumstances  in  which  I  have  been  placed. 

"  I  am  anxious  also  to  find  out  the  real  sources  of  the 
activity  of  my  race,  and  of  the  opinions  which  result 
naturally  from  the  circumstances  in  which  men  are  placed." 

After  having  thus  stated  the  philosophical  problem,  the 
author  recognizes  three  different  tendencies  in  himself, 
three  natures,  three  distinct  men  as  it  were  :  the  animal 
man,  the  social  man,  and  the  moral  man. 

The  animal  man  is  the  work  of  Nature,  a  slave  to  the 
pleasures  of  sense,  careless  of  the  morrow,  thinking  only  of 
to-day ;  but  kindly,  simple,  and  straightforward  in  his  ways. 
He  predominates  in  the  infancy  of  the  individual  as  in  that 
of  humanity. 

The  weakness  of  the  animal  man,  however,  leads  him  to 
engage  in  industry,  and  industry  produces  property,  and 
property  strife.  Gradually,  too,  differences  in  power  and 
capability  produce  differences  in  position,  and  the  less 
fortunate  are  compelled  to  appeal  to  the  powerful  for  pro- 
tection, to  the  thoughtful  for  guidance,  and  to  the  rich  for 
food,  and  so  the  social  state  begins. 

The  social  man  is  not  merely  the  work  of  Nature  ;  he  is 
also,  and  in  a  much  greater  degree,  the  work  of  society,  for 
it  is  society  that  makes  him  what  he  is  by  limiting  his" 
liberty  and  by  subjecting  him  to  rule,  custom,  and  opinion.  If 
childhood  may  be  taken  as  a  fairly  correct  image  of  the  ani- 
mal man,  adolescence  may  be  taken  as  that  of  the  social  man, 
for  it  is  upon  the  youth  that  teachers  and  professors,  schools 
and  universities,  lay  hands  to  fashion  him  to  their  liking. 


H4          PESTALOZZI:   HIS  LIFE  AND    WORK. 

But  the  animal  man  is  restless  under  the  control  of  the 
social  man,  and  so  everybody  tries  to  preserve  for  himself 
the  liberty  he  denies  to  others,  and  pleasures  that  cannot 
be  shared  by  all.  And  thus  society,  that  aimed  at  putting 
an  end  to  strife,  has  only  changed  its  form  and  made  it 
more  general.  The  employment  of  force  being  forbidden,  a 
hundred  other  ways  of  attack  have  been  found,  and  an- 
tagonism has  become  so  general  that  in  civilized  States  every 
man  is  on  his  guard  against  every  other.  The  kindliness 
and  straightforwardness  '  of  the  animal  man  have  dis- 
appeared, and  have  been  replaced  in  the  social  man  by  ill- 
will  and  cunning. 

Society  has  need  of  laws  and  government,  and  must 
therefore  allow  its  rulers  that  right  of  force  which  is  denied  to 
the  individual.  Thus  the  social  state,  bringing  with  it  on  the 
one  hand  a  spirit  of  dominion,  and  on  the  other  a  state  of 
subjection,  indefinitely  increases  men's  natural  inequalities 
as  well  as  their  pride  and  ambition,  and  the  smothered 
strife  that  goes  on  throughout  society  has  no  longer  for 
cause  the  simple  desire  to  satisfy  legitimate  needs,  but 
rather  the  pursuit  of  a  number  of  refined  artificial  pleasures, 
limitless  as  the  dreams  of  a  diseased  imagination. 

The  social  state,  then,  in  spite  of  its  immense  advantages 
for  the  progress  of  order,  security,  industry,  science,  and 
art,  is  powerless  to  improve  the  heart  of  man ;  nay,  even 
religion  itself,  in  so  far  as  it  is  only  a  part  of  a  social 
system,  is  like  a  mould  which  does  but  shape  the  surface. 
The  moral  man  is  not,  therefore,  the  work  of  society. 

The  animal  man  is  the  work  of  Nature,  the  social  man  the 
work  of  society,  but  the  moral  man  must  be  the  work  of 
himself — the  result,  that  is,  of  the  development  and  exercise 
of  the  sentiments  of  pity  and  justice,  love  and  gratitude, 
faith  and  charity,  which  the  Creator  has  set  in  the  human 
soul.  Each  individual  must  have  the  desire  to  be  higher, 
nobler,  and  better,  and  must  endeavour  to  make  himself  so 
by  working  upon  his  own  character.  The  result  of  such 
work  is  the  moral  man,  and  society  is  only  really  and 
entirely  beneficial  when  it  is  composed  of  men  of  this  sort. 

True  religion  exists  for  the  moral  man  alone  ;  for  man 
can  only  find  God  by  the  searchings  of  his  own  heart,  and 
in  so  far  as  he  still  pi-eserves  God's  image  in  himself.  When 
this  image  is  no  longer  there,  he  makes  a  god  in  his  own 


PESTALOZZI  THE    WRITER.  115 

image.  The  religion  of  the  animal  man  is  idolatry,  and  of 
the  social  man  deceit ;  but  the  religion  of  the  moral  man  is 
truth,  the  principle  and  stay  of  all  morality,  and  gives  him 
not  only  the  desire  for  unceasing  self-improvement,  but  the 
means  of  carrying  it  out. 

A  man's  progress  is  real,  and  his  activity  of  value  to 
himself,  his  family,  and  society,  only  when  he  is  self-formed; 
for  then  only  is  all  that  he  possesses  really  his  own,  then 
only  has  he  a  distinct  individuality,  with  heart  and  mind 
no  longer  the  slaves  either  of  animal  instincts  or  of  the 
prejudices  of  society. 

The  foregoing  sketch  will  give  but  a  very  imperfect  idea 
of  the  Inquiry,  for  we  have  done  little  more  than  point  out 
the  general  plan  of  the  work,  whereas  it  is  in  the  digressions 
and  developments  that  we  often  find  the  author's  most 
striking  ideas.  Often,  too,  when  he  is  led  by  his  feelings  and 
imagination  either  to  satirize  the  institutions  of  his  time, 
or  paint  in  glowing  colours  the  moral  and  intellectual  pro- 
gress to  which  he  aspires,  the  philosopher  is  lost  in  the 
poet,  and  we  come  upon  page  after  page  of  the  most  lofty 
eloquence.  The  book  closes  with  the  following  touching 
reference  to  himself: 

"  Thousands  of  men  (the  work  of  Nature  alone)  yield  to 
the  corruption  of  sensual  pleasures  and  desire  nothing 
further ;  myriads  accept  the  hard  bondage  of  their  needle, 
their  hammer,  or  their  crown,  and  also  desire  nothing 
further. 

"  I,  however,  know  a  man  who  was  not  thus  contented. 
The  innocence  of  childhood  was  his  delight,  his  faith  in  men 
was  such  as  is  shared  by  few  mortals,  his  heart  was 
fashioned  for  friendship,  his  nature  was  love  itself,  con- 
stancy his  chief  joy. 

"  But  as  he  was  not  made  by  the  world,  the  world  had 
no  place  for  him,  and  finding  him  thus,  without  even 
asking  whether  the  fault  was  his  or  another's,  crushed  him 
with  its  iron  hammer  as  the  mason  crushes  a  useless  stone. 

"  But  thotigh  crushed,  he  still  cared  more  for  humanity 
than  for  himself,  and  set  to  work  on  a  task  from  which, 
amid  cruel  sorrows,  he  learned  things  that  few  mortals 
know.  Then  he  looked  for  justice  from  those  whom  in  his 
retirement  he  still  loved,  but  he  was  disappointed,  for  he 


Ii6          PESTALOZZI:    HIS  LIFE  AND    WORK. 

was  judged  by  men  who  had  not  even  listened  to  him,  and 
persistently  declared  him  to  be  fit  for  nothing. 

"  This  was  the  grain  of  sand  that  turned  the  balance  of 
his  fate  and  was  his  ruin. 

"  He  is  now  no  more,  and  a  few  confused  traces  are  all 
that  remain  of  his  broken  existence.  He  has  fallen,  as  the 
green  fruit  falls  from  the  tree  when  the  cold  north  wind 
has  smitten  its  blossom,  or  the  cankerworm  gnawed  its 
heart.  And  as  he  fell,  he  leaned  his  head  against  the  trunk, 
and  murmured  :  '  Yet  would  I  still  nourish  thy  roots  with 
my  dust.'  Passer-by,  give  a  tear  to  his  memory,  and  leave 
this  fallen,  rotting  fruit  to  strengthen  the  tree  in  whose 
branches  it  passed  its  short-lived  summer." 

With  this  book  closes  the  series  of  works  published  by 
Pestalozzi  during  the  period  when  he  was  merely  a  writer, 
and  before  he  .entered  upon  the  educational  undertakings 
in  which  he  applied  and  developed  his  method  of  teach- 
ing, and  which  not  only  brought  him  many  eminent  colla- 
borators, but  helped  to  spread  far  and  wide  the  fame  of  the 
Pestalozzian  method. 

Pestalozzi's  publications  during  this  period  have  a  peculiar 
importance,  partly  because  they  give  their  author's  ideas 
free  from  all  foreign  alloy,  partly  because  his  manuscripts 
were  printed  just  as  they  left  his  pen. 

Afterwards,  at  Burgdorf  and  Yverdun,  it  was  no  longer 
the  same,  for  Pestalozzi,  unable  to  write  everything  himself, 
entrusted  much  of  the  work  connected  with  his  elementary 
books  to  some  of  his  collaborators,  particularly  Krusi  and 
Schmidt.  Niederer  also  helped  him  in  this  way,  revising  all 
his  more  important  work  before  publication,  with  a  view  to 
giving  it  a  more  philosophical  form. 

But  none  who  have  studied  Pestalozzi  can  be  deceived, 
the  master's  style  bearing  an  unmistakable  stamp  of  origin- 
'.  ality.  Pestalozzi  sees  far  and  deep,  but  seldom  indulges  in 
'\  general  views;  his  impulsive  genius  is  entirely  unsystematic; 
he  sheds  no  steady  light,  but  breaks  out  rather  in  brilliant 
flashes,  following  every  impulse  of  his  heart  and  every  dis- 
covery of  his  genius  with  little  care  for  logical  sequence 
This  is  at  once  his  great  merit  and  his  great  defect. 


CHAPTER  VII. 

PESTALOZZI'S  DOCTRINE  BEFORE  1798. 

THE  Swiss  Revolution  of  1798  divides  Pestalozzi's  life  into  \ 
two  widely  different  parts. 

In  the  first,  left  to  himself,  he  worked  alone ;  he  was  little 
understood ;  his  undertakings  failed,  and  he  lived  on  in  his    I 
obscure  retreat,  poor  and  despised  by  everybody.     But  at  the    / 
same  time  there  was  nothing  to  check  the  activity  of  his   I 
thought,  or  in  any  way  affect  the  originality  of  his  genius  / 
und  his  ideas.  I 

In  the  second  part  of  his  life,  Pestalozzi,  thanks  to  the  \ 
Revolution,  obtained  support  from  the  Swiss  Government,  / 
and  was  at  last  able  to  carry  out  his  views  for  the  education^ 
of  the  people.  His  rare  devotion  and  success  excited  general^ 
admiration ;  offers  of  helpers  and  pupils  came  to  him  from 
all  sides,  and  he  founded  his  educational  institutions.  But 
after  the  first  outburst  of  enthusiasm,  criticism  and  envy  also 
made  their  appearance.  The  general  body  of  teachers,  indeed, 
manifested  considerable  opposition  to  the  new  method,  and 
numerous  attacks  were  directed  against  it,  which  had  all  to  be 
answered.  The  consequence  of  this  was  that  from  that  time 
Pestalozzi,  having  to  consider  his  protectors  the  magistrates, 
his  collaborators,  and  the  parents  of  his  pupils,  was  no  longer 
able  to  preserve  the  complete  independence  he  had  formerly 
enjoyed.  And  hence  it  is  important  that  we  should  clearly 
understand  what  Pestalozzi's  doctrine  was  at  the  end  of  this 
first  period  of  his  life,  before  those  undertakings  were  em- 
barked upon  which  brought  him  glory,  it  is  true,  though 
often,  if  we  may  judge  from  its  outward  manifestations,  at  the 
expense  of  the  independence  and  originality  of  his  genius. 

In  1797  Pestalozzi  was  fifty-one  years  old,  and,  as  we  have 
seen,  looked  upon  himself  as  a  worn-out  old  man  incapable 
of  further  effort.  And  yet  his  most  important  work,  that 


Ii8          PESTALOZZIt   HIS  LIFE  AND    WORK. 

— — <• 

work  which,  in  spite  of  not  being  entirely  free  from  foreign 
influences,  was  in  the  truest  sense  the  result  and  development 
of  his  past  thought  and  activity,  was  not  even  begun.  If  we 
examine  Pestalozzi's  views  at  the  point  we  have  now  reached, 
it  will  be  easier,  when  we  are  describing  the  second  part 
of  his  life,  to  distinguish  the  natural  and  logical  development 
of  these  views  from  the  modifications  introduced  into  them  by 
circumstances. 

We  have  seen  that  the  starting-point  of  Pestalozzi's  work 
was  his  search  for  the  means  of  rescuing  the  people  from 
their  state  of  poverty  and  degradation.  He  soon  saw  that 
it  is  impossible  to  help  the  poor,  unless  the  poor  are  able  and 
willing  to  help  themselves;  that  is  to  say,  their  material 
destitution  cannot  disappear  so  long  as  their  moral  and  intel- 
lectual poverty  exists.  In  other  words,  the  true  remedy  is 
education. 

Then,  in  studying  human  nature  in  very  young  children, 
he  found,  even  in  the  families  most  degraded  by  poverty,  the 
seed  as  it  were  of  a  wealth  of  faculties,  sentiments,  tastes, 
and  capabilities,  whose  natural  development  would  provide 
for  the  satisfaction  of  all  the  material,  intellectual,  and  moral 
needs  of  society. 

He  saw,  further,  that  the  ordinary  education  of  his  day, 
instead  of  looking  for  these  elements  of  power  in  the  child, 
in  order  to  develop  them  by  use  and  encourage  a  full  natural 
growth  of  all  the  child's  best  faculties,  did  nothing  but  put 
before  him  the  knowledge,  ideas,  and  feelings  of  others,  and 
try  to  make  him  regulate  his  habits  by  them,  and  fix  them 
in  his  memory. 

Thus  the  most  precious  powers  of  the  child  wasted  in 
inaction,  and  education  did  little  more  than  stifle  his  indi- 
viduality beneath  a  mass  of  borrowed  ideas. 

The  direction  of  the  education  of  the  day  was  from  without 
to  within ;  Pestalozzi  wished  to  make  it  from  within  to  without. 

All  these  ideas  are  expressed  so  often  and  so  clearly  in  the 
quotations  we  have  given  from  Pestalozzi's  writings,  that  it 
seems  superfluous  to  refer  to  the  numerous  passages  in  which 
they  are  to  be  found.  It  was  still  necessary,  however,  to  find 
a  way  of  developing  these  powers,  which  exist  in  the  child 
but  in  germ,  and  of  strengthening  and  increasing  the  bud- 
ding faculties  whose  united  and  harmonious  action  is  to  form 
the  perfect  man. 


PESTALOZZrS  DOCTRINE  BEFORE   1798.        119 

In  his  first  writing  on  education,  TJie  Evening  Hour 
of  a  Hermit,  printed  in  1780,  Pestalozzi  had  said  in  No.  22  : 
"  Nature  develops  all  the  powers  of  humanity  by  exercising 
them ;  they  increase  with  use."  And,  again,  in  No.  25  : 
"  Thou  who  wouldst  be  a  father  to  thy  child,  do  not  expect 
too  much  of  him  till  his  mind  has  been  strengthened  by 
practice  in  the  things  he  can  understand." 

Thus  if  faculties  are  to  be  developed,  they  must  be  used  ; 
and  before  they  can  be  used  they  must  be  provided  with 
work  within  their  scope.  '  Hence  the  importance  in  all 
elementary  exercises  of  the  starting-point,  which,  after  much 
careful  investigation,  Pestalozzi  found  in  the  child's  natural 
tastes,  in  the  needs  of .  its  age,  in  the  circumstances  of  its 
home-life,  for  we  read  in  No.  40  of  the  Evening  Hour : 
"  The  pure  sentiment  of  truth  and  wisdom  is  formed  in  the 
narrow  circle  of  our  personal  relations,  the  circumstances 
which  suggest  our  actions,  and  the  powers  we  need  to  develop." 
Having  thus  sought  the  starting-point  of  education  in  the 
needs,  desires,  and  circumstances  of  actual  life,  Pestalozzi 
was  naturally  led  to  associate  the  work  of  the  body  with  that 
of  the  mind,  to  develop  industry  and  study  side  by  side, 
to  combine,  as  it  were,  the  workshop  and  the  school.  It  is 
particularly  in  Leonard  and  Gertrude  that  this  last  point  of 
view  is  most  fully  treated. 

Thus  the  question  of  education  led  to  the  consideration 
of  economical  questions.  It  was  not  only  necessary  to 
develop  the  intellectual  faculties  and  the  moral  sense  of  the 
child,  but  also  to  exercise  his  bodily  powers  and  teach  him  to 
earn  his  livelihood  in  the  society  in  which  he  has  to  live,  and 
in  which  nothing  but  his  own  efforts  will  keep  him  a  place. 

This  explains  how  it  was  that  Pestalozzi  felt  called  upon 
to  examine  our  social  system,  to  point  out  the  obstacles  in  the 
way  of  an  improved  condition  of  the  people,  and  to  deter- 
mine what  reforms  were  necessary  for  helping  this  on. 

Thus  led  to  the  consideration  of  social  and  political 
questions,  he  first  treats  them  in  fiction  in  Leonard  and 
Gertrude,  where  he  describes  the  reformation  of  the  village 
of  Bonal ;  then  in  apologues  in  the  Fables,  and  finally  in 
a  philosophical  essay  in  the  Inquiry,  a  work  which  cost 
him,  as  we  know,  three  years  of  sustained  effort. 

In  his  views  on  social  organization,  Pestalozzi  was  in 
advance  of  his  time,  and  the  po.nts  he  raises  are  still  burning 


120          PESTALOZZI:    HIS  LIFE  AND    WORK. 

questions  to-day,  though,  his  opinions  will  seem  vague  and 
timid  to  modern  socialists  who  do  not  always  respect  religion, 
family  ties,  or  the  rights  of  property,  all  of  which  Pesta- 
lozzi  believed  to  be  essential  conditions  of  civilization  and 
progress.  He  condemns  luxury,  display,  and  the  arrogance  of 
those  upon  whom  the  world  smiles.  He  wishes  comfort  to  be 
within  the  reach  of  the  lower  classes,  though  for  this  end, 
which  is  the  great  unchanging  desire  of  his  heart,  he  relies 
much  more  on  education  th,an  on  statutes. 

In  politics  he  has  distinctly  radical  tendencies,  though 
with  a  horror  of  all  violence.  He  is  an  enthusiast  for  liberty, 
and  wants  everything  to  be  done  for  the  people,  the  poor, 
the  weak,  and  the  ignorant.  He  does  not,  however,  want 
everything  done  by  the  people.  It  is  true  that  the  poor 
people  amongst  whom  he  lived,  and  whom  he  understood 
better  than  anybody,  were  not  at  that  time  fit  to  have  the 
direction  of  public  affairs  placed  in  their  hands.  His  demo- 
cracy then  was  not  quite  the  same  a<3  the  democracy  of 
to-day. 

Pestalozzi's  religious  sentiment  was  strong  and  living; 
it  comes  out  in  all  his  writings  and  in  all  the  circumstances 
of  his  life.  And  yet  it  is  by  no  means  clear  what  his 
religion  was,  for  he  nowhere  makes  a  complete  profession 
of  faith,  which  can  only  be  looked  for  in  isolated  passages 
that  do  not  always  agree.  The  fact  is  that  Pestalozzi  had 
no  religious  system.  The  first  seeds  of  the  religious  senti- 
ment had  been  sown  in  his  earliest  childhood  in  his  home- 
life,  and,  though  his  faith  had  been  weakened  rather  than 
strengthened  by  his  subsequent  theological  studies,  and 
severely  shaken  by  the  writings  of  Rousseau  and  the  philo- 
sophers of  the  eighteenth  century,  it  had  revived,  as  we 
have  seen,  at  the  birth  of  his  son.  But  even  then  Pestalozzi 
still  held  aloof  from  all  dogmatism,  and  refused  his  adher- 
ence to  any  set  of  doctrines.  He  had  seen  too  much  dead 
orthodoxy  and  barren  dogma,  too  much  religious  instruction 
that  was  powerless  to  touch  the  heart  or  change  the  life. 
He  rejected  formularies  no  less  than  formalism,  and  con- 
demned the  use  of  the  catechism  in  schools,  where  he  wanted 
religion  to  be  confined  to  the  reading  of  the  Bible  and  the 
practice  of  the  Christian  virtues.  He  felt  that  set  doctrines 
have  always  something  that  savours  of  men  about  them, 
that  they  are  only  useful  for  scholars  and  not  good  for  little 


PESTALOZZrS  DOCTRINE  BEFORE   1798.        121 

children.  He  feared,  too,  that  theology  might  prove  a 
tempting  substitute  for  the  religion  of  the  heart  and  life, 
a  fear  which  we  think  may  be  explained  by  the  state  of 
religious  feeling  amongst  the  educated  classes  at  the  end  of 
the  last  century. 

In  this  frame  of  mind  Pestalozzi  was  inclined  to  yield 
to  every  suggestion  of  his  heart  and  imagination,  and  often 
indulged  in  outbursts  which  exaggerated  his  real  thought, 
and  sometimes  led  him  to  contradict  himself  without  sus- 
pecting it.  We  will  give  but  one  instance  out  of  many. 
Pestalozzi  has  often  been  charged  with  not  believing  in 
original  sin  ;  that  is,  in  the  innate  existence  of  evil  in  the 
heart  of  man,  a  charge  which  can  be  supported  by  numerous 
passages  in  which  he  exalts  the  innocence  of  the  child,  and 
expects  everything  from  an  education  that  shall  nourish, 
train,  and  develop  the  germs  of  virtue  and  goodness  im- 
planted in  the  heart. 

And  yet  in  other  places  he  points  with  precisely  the 
same  force  of  conviction  to  the  existence  of  evil  in  human 
nature.  He  does  this  in  a  most  striking  manner  in  the 
fable,  The  Interior  of  the  Hill,  which  we  quoted  in  full  in 
the  last  chapter. 

Orthodox  Christians  will  find  many  expressions  in  Pesta- 
lozzi's  writings  that  they  will  take  exception  to,  but  they 
will  find  no  attack  on  revealed  truths.  Now,  had  he  not 
believed  in  them,  he  would  have  said  so,  for  he  was  not  a 
man  to  spare  anything  that  he  did  not  think  good  and  true. 
Though  eminently  a  free-thinker  in  the  proper  sense  of  the 
word,  and  also  a  free  speaker,  never  did  his  free-thought 
lead  him  to  doubt  the  Christian  verities.  It  is  true  that  at 
this  period  of  his  life  his  outward  manifestations  of  religion 
were,  from  a  Christian  point  of  view,  exceedingly  incom- 
plete ;  afterwards,  however,  he  endeavoured  to  make  up 
for  these  shortcomings,  though  he  always  more  or  less 
ignored  the  essential  doctrine  of  the  redemption.  This 
explains  how  it  is  that  certain  people,  forgetting  his  long 
life  of  abnegation,  ardent  charity,  and  absolute  self- 
surrender,  have  gone  so  far  as  to  say  that  Pestalozzi  was 
not  a  Christian.  But  did  not  Jesus  Himself  say,  "  By  their 
fruits  ye  shall  know  them  "  ? 

If  it  is  now  asked  what,  in  this  first  part  of  his  life,  Pes- 
talozzi's  essential  work  really  was,  and  what  the  discovery 


122          PESTALOZZI:    HIS  LIFE  AND    WORK. 

was  that  we  owe  to  his  genius  and  to  the  prodigious  activity 
of  his  thought,  we  answer  that  his  work  was  that  of 
a  philosopher,  and  his  discovery  that  of  a  principle  which 
regulates  the  law  of  man's  development,  and  is  the  funda- 
mental principle  of  education.  It  may  seem  hard  to  some 
to  recognize  a  philosopher  in  this  man,  who  seemed  bent 
on  nothing  but  practical  experiments,  who,  as  a  writer, 
excelled  chiefly  in  drawing  characters  and  relating  facts 
of  his  observation  with  a  great  wealth  of  detail,  and  who, 
in  his  Inquiry,  the  one  book  in  which  he  attempted  a 
philosophical  form  and  style,  succeeded  only  in  being  prolix 
and  obscure.  But  in  this  respect,  as  in  many  others,  Pesta- 
lozzi  was  like  nobody  else ;  he  was  a  philosopher  without 
intending  it.  It  was  in  truth  an  idea,  a  general  idea,  and 
always  the  same,  which  struck  him  in  all  his  observations, 
which  inspired  all  his  plans  for  reform,  and  which  he  fol- 
lowed in  all  the  practical  undertakings  to  which  he  put  his 
hand.  To  be  convinced  of  this,  it  is  enough  to  follow  him 
closely  in  his  life  and  writings.  In  this  way,  too,  we  shall 
come  to  understand  this  general  idea  which  was  so  peculiarly 
his  own,  which  was  constantly  urging  him  to  passionate 
and  disinterested  activity,  and  which  inspired  the  great 
work  of  his  life. 

All  the  real  knowledge,  useful  powers,  and  noble  senti- 
ments that  a  man  can  acquire  are  but  the  extension  of  his 
individuality  by  the  development  of  the  powers,  strength, 
and  faculties  that  God  has  put  in  him.  and  by  their  assimila- 
tion of  the  elements  supplied  by  the  outer  world.  There 
exists  for  this  development  and  this  work  of  assimilation 
a  natural  and  necessary  order  which  is  generally  neglected 
in  school  education. 

That,  then,  is  the  dominant  idea  in  Pestalozzi's  thought, 
an  idea  which  comes  out  in  one  way  or  another  in  all  his 
plans  for  reform  and  in  all  his  writings.  Here  are  a  few 
passages  from  the  Evening  Hour,  in  which  it  is  easy  to 
recognize  it : 

"  All  the  pure  and  beneficent  powers  of  humanity  are 
neither  the  products  of  art  nor  the  results  of  chance.  They 
are  really  a  natural  possession  of  every  man.  Their  develop- 
ment is  a  universal  human  need."  (No.  8.) 

"  Man !  in  thyself,  in  the  inward  consciousness  of  thine 


PESTALOZZrS  DOCTRINE  BEFORE  1798.         123 

own  strength,  is  the  instrument  intended  by  Nature  for  thy 
development."  (No.  12.) 

"  The  path  of  Nature,  which  develops  the  powers  of 
humanity,  must  be  easy  and  open  to  all;  education  which 
brings  true  wisdom  and  peace  of  mind  must  be  simple  and 
within  everybody's  reach."  (No.  21.) 

"  The  exercise  of  a  man's  faculties  and  talents,  to  be  pro- 
fitable, must  follow  the  course  laid  down  by  Nature  for  the 
education  of  humanity."  (No.  23.) 

"  When  men  are  anxious  to  go  too  fast,  and  are  not 
satisfied  with  Nature's  method  of  development,  they  imperil 
their  inward  strength,  and  destroy  the  harmony  and  peace 
of  their  souls."  (No.  26.) 

"  The  schools  hastily  substitute  an  artificial  method  of 
words  for  the  truer  method  of  Nature,  which  knows  no  hurry 
and  is  content  to  wait.  In  this  way  a  specious  form  of 
development  is  produced,  hiding  the  want  of  real  inward 
strength,  but  satisfying  times  like  our  own."  (No.  28.) 

We  have  only  quoted  from  the  Evening  Hour,  because 
Pestalozzi  there  expresses  his  thought  in  short,  pithy 
aphorisms,  whereas  such  quotations  as  we  might  have  taken 
from  his  other  writings  must  necessarily  have  been  much 
longer.  But  if  we  wish  to  grasp  Pestalozzi's  idea  in  its 
simplest,  and  at  the  same  time  its  most  general  expression, 
we  must  seek  it  in  a  comparison  which  is  so  natural  and 
familiar  to  him  that  he  is  always  coming  back  to  it. 

In  his  speeches,  in  his  explanations  of  his  views,  and 
especially  in  his  fables,  he  is  constantly  comparing  the 
education  of  man,  even  from  the  intellectual  and  moral 
point  of  view,  to  the  development  and  growth  of  a  plant. 
It  is  evident  that  in  his  eyes  the  analogy  is  complete.  He 
even  states  it  once  in  these  words  :  "  Man,  formed  from  the 
dust  of  the  earth,  grows  and  ripens  like  a  plant  rooted  in  the 
soil." 

It  is  by  virtue  of  this  analogy  that  he  always  speaks 
of  education  as  a  development,  a  product  of  the  child's  own 
work,  a  graduated  series  of  progressive  steps,  in  which  each 
step  follows  naturally  from  the  last,  and  prepares  the  way 
Cor  the  next.  In  his  eyes,  then,  the  gift  of  God  which 
renders  the  human  soul  capable  of  its  intellectual  and  moral 
victories,  is  like  a  seed  which  opens  that  its  shoots  may 


124          PESTALOZZI:   HIS  LIFE  AND    WORK. 

grow,  spread,  blossom,  and  bear  fruit ;  and  the  part  of  educa- 
tion is  to  encourage  and  direct  an  organic  development. 

The  word  organism,  it  is  true,  is  not  found  iu  any  of 
Pestalozzi's  writings  before  the  time  at  which  we  have 
arrived ;  but  although  the  word  is  not  there,  the  idea  is.  It 
is  later,  in  the  book  entitled  How  Gertrude  Teaches  her 
Children,  that  Pestalozzi  first  uses  the  word,  which  was 
suggested  to  him  perhaps  by  some  of  the  men  who  were 
then  associated  with  him. 

The  organism  of  education  has  been  treated  by  the  author 
of  the  present  biography  in  a  work  entitled,  The  Philo- 
sophy and  Practice  of  Education,  in  which  an  attempt  is 
made  to  show  that  the  abstract  organic  law  which  is  seen 
to  exist  in  the  material  world  also  governs  the  intellectual 
and  moral  development  of  man,  and  includes  all  the  essential 
principles  that  were  recognized  and  applied  by  Pestalozzi. 

Some  people  have  hesitated  thus  to  introduce  into  the 
domain  of  moral  science  a  word  which  had  only  been  em- 
ployed in  the  physical  sciences,  fearing,  perhaps,  the  abuse 
the  materialist  school  might  make  of  it,  a  fear,  however, 
which  seems  to  us  to  be  entirely  groundless.  Be  that  as  it 
may,  it  is  certain  that  the  word  could  not  be  replaced  save 
by  some  neologism  which  would  be  much  less  clear. 

In  his  later  writings,  and  as  his  work  advances,  Pesta- 
lozzi makes  more  and  more  use  of  the  word  organic  in 
explaining  his  views.  And  yet  he  never  called  his  method 
the  organic  method,  which  seems  to  us  the  only  name  that 
really  expresses  its  character. 

We  are  now  about  to  see  Pestalozzi  at  work  at  last  as  a 
teacher,  applying  his  ideas  to  the  education  of  children,  and 
formulating,  if  not  in  its  principle,  at  any  rate  in  its  spirit  and 
details,  the  method  that  bears  his  name.  Now,  too,  the 
philosophical  idea  upon  which  his  whole  system  is  based, 
and  of  which  in  his  previous  writings  we  have  caught  but 
a  glimpse,  will  stand  out  fully  revealed. 


CHAPTER 
PESTALOZZI  AT  STANZ. 

Swiss  Revolution :  the  hopes  it  awakens  in  Pestalozzi.  Hi* 
political  pamphlets.  He  is  appointed  chief  editor  of  the 
" Popular  Swiss  News"  the  organ  of  the  Government. 
The  Directory  orders  the  formation  of  an  Educational 
Institution  to  be  managed  by  Pestalozzi.  Revolt  of  the 
small  cantons.  Disaster  at  Stanz.  The  Directory  founds 
a  Home  for  Orphans  there  under  the  management  of  Pesta- 
lozzi. Great  difficulties.  Astonishing  success.  Return  of 
the  French  troops  to  Stanz.  The  orphanage  wanted  for  a 
hospital.  Pestalozzi  ill.  Goes  away  to  the  Gumigel.  His 
letter  to  Gessner  on  his  work  at  Stanz.  Pedagogical  results 
of  this  experiment. 

PESTALOZZI'S  correspondence  with  Fellenberg  has  shown  us 
how  much  he  dreaded  the  intervention  of  France  in  the 
home  affairs  of  Switzerland ;  but  in  the  beginning  of  1798 
this  intervention  was  an  accomplished  fact,  and  the  young 
republic,  scarcely  recovered  from  the  bloody  convulsions  of 
its  birth,  set  to  work  to  refashion  its  elder  sister,  Switzer- 
land, in  its  own  image. 

The  principles  of  1789  having  penetrated  into  most  of  the 
cantons,  and  divided  the  country,  resistance  was  easily  over- 
come, and  the  ancient  structure  which  for  four  centuries 
had  safeguarded  the  independence  of  the  confederated 
states,  crumbled  and  fell,  carrying  with  it,  however,  oligar- 
chical governments,  family  and  local  privileges,  and  a  host 
of  rights,  customs  and  prejudices  that  had  considerably 
interfered  with  the  liberty  and  equality  of  the  citizens. 
The  Swiss  Republic,  one  and  indivisible,  was  now  pro- 
claimed, under  the  government  of  a  Directory  of  five 
members. 

In  the  meantime  Pestalozzi  had  become  somewhat  re- 
conciled to  the  intervention  he  had  so  much  dreaded. 


126        PESTALOZZI:    HIS  LIFE  AND    WORK. 

The  real  progress  and  great  moral  regeneration  that  now 
seemed  in  store  for  his  country  made  him  forget  all  the 
harm  done  to  Switzerland  by  the  presence  of  foreign 
armies,  and  by  the  irritation  that  resulted  from  the  conflict 
of  so  many  different  ideas,  feelings,  and  interests.  He  firmly 
believed  that  the  reforms  so  often  asked  for  in  vain  by 
many  of  the  wisest  and  noblest  men,  were  at  last  about  to 
be  realized,  that  he  would  be  able  henceforth  to  sow  his 
ideas  in  a  fruitful  soil  from  which  all  obstacles  had  been 
removed,  and  that  the  efforts  of  the  new  rulers,  who  cared 
for  nothing  but  the  well-being  and  happiness  of  the  people, 
were  destined  to  meet  with  complete  success.  Carried  away 
by  his  enthusiasm,  he  already  seemed  to  see  the  simplicity, 
purity,  and  loyalty  of  former  times  reviving  under  this  new 
breath  of  liberty. 

Thoroughly  convinced  of  the  benefits  that  were  to  result 
from  the  new  order  of  things,  Pestalozzi  at  once  became 
one  of  its  most  zealous  supporters  ;  and  between  the  spring 
and  autumn  of  1798  published  in  quick  succession  a  number 
of  political  pamphlets  bearing  the  following  titles : 

a.  "  A  Word  to  the  Legislative  Councils  of  Helvetia." 
6.  "  On  Tithes." 

c.  "  Awake,  People  of  Helvetia !  " 

d.  "  To  my  Country." 

e.  "  To  the  People  of  Helvetia." 

f.  "  An  Appeal  to  the  Inhabitants  of  the  old  Democratic 
Cantons." 

g.  "  On  the  Present  and  Future  of  Humanity." 

The  first  of  these  pamphlets,  however,  was  condemned  by 
the  very  party  for  whom  it  was  written,  and  for  no  other 
reason  than  that  it  vehemently  opposed  a  scheme  that  had 
been  adopted  by  the  Great  Council  for  indemnifying,  at  the 
expense  of  the  oligarchies,  certain  patriots  who  had  been 
prosecuted  for  their  attacks  on  the  old  order  of  things.  In 
all  these  writings,  indeed,  Pestalozzi  advocated  union,  har- 
mony, and  forgetfuluess  of  the  past.  Nor  was  he  satisfied 
with  merely  seeking  to  reconcile  to  the  new  constitution 
those  who  were  still  hostile  to  it,  but  exhorted  the  govern- 
ing bodies  to  establish  justice  and  morality,  stimulate 
activity  throughout  the  country,  encourage  all  industries, 


PESTALOZZI  AT  STAKZ.  127 

and  above  all  help  on  in  every  possible  way  the  education  of 
the  people. 

But  his  publications  were  hardly  looked  at  by  the  people 
to  whom  they  were  addressed,  and  exercised  little  or  no 
influence. 

It  is  doubtful  indeed  whether  they  would  have  exercised 
much  influence,  in  any  case,  for  their  author  does  not  betray 
any  very  great  practical  sense.  The  fact  is  that  Pestalozzi, 
as  the  Germans  used  to  say,  "  understood  man  better  than 
men." 

Before  very  long,  Pestalozzi's  influence  as  a  political 
writer  was  still  further  lessened  in  a  way  which  we  must 
now  explain.  In  June,  1798,  the  Great  Council  asked  the 
Directory  to  publish  a  newspaper  for  the  purpose  of  meeting 
the  opposition  excited  by  the  new  state  of  things,  enlighten- 
ing men's  minds,  and  rallying  the  people  throughout  the 
country  round  the  unitary  government.  On  the  23rd  of 
July,  the  Directory  instructed  Stapfer,  the  Minister  of  Arts 
and  Sciences,  to  see  that  this  was  done.  Stapfer  at  once 
applied  to  Pestalozzi,  who,  on  the  20th  of  August,  accepted 
the  editorship  of  the  new  publication.  The  paper  was  to 
be  called  the  Popular  Swiss  News,  was  to  appear  weekly, 
and  was  to  be  sent  gratuitously  to  schoolmasters,  ministers 
of  religion,  and  all  government  officials,  who  were  instructed 
to  read  it  and  explain  it  to  those  about  them. 

Pestalozzi  had  help  from  Hess,  Lavater,  Ftissli,  and  others, 
but  he  wrote  most  of  the  paper  himself.  Having  one  day 
asked  Zschokke  for  his  collaboration,  the  latter  refused,  say- 
ing, "A  really  popular  paper  ought  not  to  be  the  organ  of 
the  Government,  but  a  perfectly  independent  publication 
written  in  the  spirit  and  language  of  the  people  for  whom  it 
is  intended." 

Zschokke  was  right.  The  paper  was  looked  upon  with 
suspicion  by  the  opponents  of  the  Republic,  and  was  not 
read  by  the  common  people.  After  the  first  nineteen  num- 
bers, therefore,  the  Government  suppressed  it,  "because  it 
was  not  reaching  its  end."  Pestalozzi,  however,  had  ceased 
to  be  the  editor  some  time  before,  grave  events  having 
called  him  away  to  work  that  was  far  more  worthy  of  him. 

As  early  as  May,  1798,  Pestalozzi  had  addressed  the 
following  letter  to  Meyer,  the  Minister  of  Justice,  in  the 
absence  of  Stapfer,  who  was  then  in  Paris : 


128        PESTALOZZI:   HIS  LIFE  AND    WORK. 

"  Citizen  Minister, —  •;.'  . •' 

"  Convinced  that  the  country  is  in  urgent  need  of  some 
improvement  in  the  education  and  schools  of  the  people,  and 
feeling  sure  that  three  or  four  months'  experience  would  give 
the  most  important  results,  I  address  myself,  in  the  absence 
of  citizen  minister  Stapfer,  to  citizen  minister  Meyer,  to 
offer  through  him  my  services  to  the  country,  and  to  beg  him 
to  take  the  necessary  steps  with  the  Directory  for  the  accom- 
plishment of  my  patriotic  purpose. 

"  With  republican  greeting, 

"  PESTALOZZI. 
"Aarau,  the  2lst  May,  1798." 

This  offer  was  accepted,  and  Stapfer,  on  his  return  to 
Aarau,  at  once  opened  negotiations  with  Pestalozzi.  The 
minister  was  inclined  to  begin  by  establishing  a  training 
school  for  country  schoolmasters,  and  putting  Pestalozzi  at 
its  head,  but  the  latter  declared  that  he  was  particularly 
anxious  to  test  his  method  with  children,  and  showed  Stap- 
fer a  plan  for  a  poor  school,  such  as  he  had  attempted  to 
establish  at  Neuhof,  and  had  described  in  Leonard  and 
Gertrude.  The  minister  proposed  the  execution  of  this 
plan  to  the  Directory  in  a  long  report  from  which  we  can 
only  give  a  few  extracts. 

After  pointing  out  the  necessity  for  an  entire  reorganiza- 
tion of  public  education,  the  report  continues  : 

"  Thanks  to  a  distinguished  patriot,  your  minister  is  in  a 
position  to  do  this.  Citizen  Pestalozzi  has  submitted  to  me 
a  plan  for  an  educational  establishment,  suited  not  only  to 
the  needs  and  resources  of  our  own  time,  but  to  the  nature  of 
men  and  citizens  in  general.  The  mere  name  of  the  author 
is  enough  in  itself.  He  is  a  man  who  in  his  excellent  and 
popular  works  has  given  the  greatest  proofs  of  capacity, 
whose  disinterested  activity  for  the  country  both  before  ind 
after  the  B.evolntion  is  well  known,  whose  opinions  have 
received  the  unanimous  approval  of  the  most  enlightened 
men  and  noblest  princes  of  our  time,  and  who  longs,  by  a 
thoroughly  efficient  system  of  popular  education,  to  give 
dignity  to  our  political  reform,  and  provide  it  with  a  solid 
guarantee  of  duration  and  strength. 

"  I  might  here  call  attention  to  the  many  advantages  that 


PESTALOZZI  AT  STANZ.  129 

would  be  likely  to  result  from  listening  to  the  advice  of 
such  a  man,  but  I  will  content  myself  with  one  observation. 
Although  this  indefatigable  patriot  has  been  praised  on  all 
sides,  and  has  seen  his  ideas  partially  applied  in  many  parts 
of  Germany,  nothing  has  as  yet  been  done  in  his  own 
country,  where  he  himself  would  have  worked  for  the  success 
of  each  establishment,  where  he  would  have  been  sure  of 
finding  active  collaborators,  and  where  he  would  have  given 
the  world  an  example  of  the  realization  of  his  views.  He  is 
already  fighting  against  old  age,  but  the  hope  of  obtaining 
aid  from  an  enlightened  magistracy  in  carrying  out  his 
heart's  desire  for  his  country  and  humanity,  fills  him  once 
more  with  the  courage  and  strength  of  youth.  Your  minis- 
ter hopes,  citizen  directors,  that  the  honour  of  rewarding 
him  with  the  realization  of  his  plans  for  the  happiness  of 
the  country  has  been  reserved  for  you." 

The  report  then  proceeds  to  prove : 

1.  That  Pestalozzi's  proposal   satisfies    all    the    require- 
ments of  education  in  general,  and  of  public  education  in 
particular. 

2.  That  it  in  no  way  endangers  the  unity  and  uniformity 
of  the  educational  establishments  of  the  republic,  and  con- 
stitutes no  sort  of  privilege. 

3.  That  it  satisfies  the  requirements  of  the   most  rigid 
economy. 

It  closes  with  the  following  suggestion : 

PROPOSED  FORM  OF  DECREE. 

1.  The  Directory  hereby  assures  citizen  Pestalozzi  of  its 
high  appreciation  of  the  many  proof's  he  has  given  of  his 
patriotism,  disinterestedness,  and  activity  in  all   that  con- 
cerns the  welfare  of  his  country  and  fellow-citizens. 

2.  The  Minister   of   Arts   and   Sciences  is  authorized  to 
allow  citizen  Pestalozzi  the  sum  of  one  hundred  and  twenty 
pounds,  to  be  payable  in  such  instalments  and  at  such  times 
as  shall  be  agreed  upon. 

3.  The   Minister   will    settle    with   citizen  Pestalozzi   as 
to  the  place  where  an  educational   establishment  shall  be 
founded,  and  as  to  the  number  of  masters,  pupils,  etc. 

4.  On  receiving  the  Minister's  report,  the  Directory  will 


130         PESTALOZZI:    HIS  LIFE  AND   WORK. 

furnish  citizen  Pestalozzi  with  a  sufficient  quantity  of  leds 
and  other  furniture  from  various  national  institutions. 

5.  At  stated  intervals  citizen  Pestalozzi  will  make  re- 
ports to  the  Minister  on  the  administration  and  progress  of 
the  institution,  which  reports  will  afford  means  of  making 
the  establishment  more  generally  known,  and  of  spreading 
its  benefits. 

The  Directory  adopted  these  suggestions,  and  steps  were 
immediately  taken  to  carry  them  out.  But  the  choice  of  a 
locality  and  of  a  site  for  the  establishment,  as  well  as  other 
questions  of  detail,  took  some  time,  and  before  these  preli- 
minary matters  were  settled,  a  frightful  catastrophe  gave  a 
new  direction  to  Pestalozzi's  unselfish  and  untiring  activity. 

The  three  cantons  of  Schwyz,  Uri,  and  Unterwalden,  may 
be  said  to  have  been  the  cradles  of  Swiss  liberty.  Strongly 
attached  to  their  ancient  laws  and  customs,  their  priests, 
and  the  Catholic  faith  of  their  fathers,  and  proud  of  their  old 
right  to  be  self-sufficing  and  to  govern  themselves  as  they 
thought  best  by  popular  assemblies,  they  naturally  felt 
nothing  but  horror  for  the  revolution  which  had  just  taken 
place,  and  for  the  single  central  government  which  it  had 
set  up  in  Switzerland.  The  district  of  Lower  Unterwalden 
borders  the  lake  of  the  Four  Cantons,  and  consists  of  a  small 
group  of  fertile  hills  rising  gradually  to  that  part  of  the 
Alps  which  is  crowned  by  the  glaciers  of  the  Titlis,  and 
which  commands,  on  the  other  side,  the  valley  of  the  Aar  in 
the  canton  of  Berne.  Fertile,  well-watered,  and  happy  in  a 
mild  climate,  this  secluded  spot,  cut  off  as  it  seemed  from 
the  rest  of  the  world,  was  cultivated  almost  as  carefully  as 
a  garden.  It  was  inhabited  by  a  fine  set  of  people,  who  in 
their  isolation  in  the  midst  of  modern  civilization,  had  pre- 
served many  of  the  qualities  as  well  as  the  defects  of  the 
primitive  races  of  the  world. 

Their  flocks  were  their  chief  source  of  wealth,  but  there 
was  a  good  deal  of  cultivated  land  in  the  neighbourhood  of 
the  village,  and  an  abundance  of  fruit-trees  everywhere. 
They  were  simple  and  frugal  in  their  habits,  and  though 
they  possessed  no  knowledge  of  any  industry,  and  very  little 
instruction,  they  were  yet  able  to  live  in  comfort  and  con- 
tentment without  leading  very  laborious  lives. 

According  to  the  laws  and  customs  of  the  district,  the 


PESTALOZZI  AT  STANZ.  131 

poor  were  entitled  to  help  from  their  relations,  even  the 
most  distant,  as  well  as  from  the  parish  and  the  State,  a 
right  which  had  gradually  encouraged  habits  of  idleness  and 
mendicity  amongst  a  certain  portion  of  the  population.  In 
other  respects  the  people  of  Unterwalden  were  a  gifted 
race — quick,  intelligent,  generous,  and  especially  remarkable 
for  a  certain  aesthetic  instinct,  which  has  produced  a  con- 
siderable number  of  artists  of  real  merit,  and  which  is  still 
evident  to-day  in  all  they  do,  in  their  dress,  their  houses, 
and  their  chapels,  and  above  all  in  the  small  and  delicate 
paintings  that  have  replaced  the  wayside  crosses  on  the 
hills.  Such  were  the  people  who  were  now  asked  to  take 
the  oath  of  allegiance  to  the  Unitary  Constitution  of  Swit- 
zerland. Upon  their  refusal,  the  Directory  sent  a  French 
army-corps,  under  the  command  of  General  Schauenbourg,  to 
reduce  them  to  submission. 

Though  they  were  few  in  number,  they  were  resolved  to 
sell  their  lives  dearly.  Men,  women,  and  children  fought 
like  lions,  but  had  at  last  to  succumb  to  the  superior  num- 
ber, tactics,  and  weapons  of  their  formidable  enemies.  The 
French  soldiers  were  exasperated  by  this  unexpected  and 
obstinate  resistance.  They  suffered  serious  losses,  and  in 
consequence  gave  no  quarter,  sparing  neither  age  nor  sex, 
and  completing  their  work  of  destruction  by  devastating  the 
district  by  fire. 

In  the  meantime  the-  old  and  infirm  people  had  assembled 
in  the  church  of  Stanz,  the  chief  town  of  the  district,  to 
pray  with  their  priest,  Luci,  a  venerable  old  man  of  sixty. 
This  vast  building,  which  served  as  a  meeting  place  for  the 
faithful  of  all  the  country  round,  stands  in  the  principal 
square  of  the  town,  and  is  raised  some  four  or  five  yards 
above  the  level  of  the  road  with  which  it  is  connected  by  a 
large  flight  of  stone  steps. 

When  the  victors  reached  this  square,  General  Corbineau, 
thinking  that  the  church  might  prove  a  fresh  centre  of 
resistance,  rode  up  the  steps  and  entered  the  building,  fol- 
lowed by  his  men.  The  priest,  who  was  at  the  altar  elevat- 
ing the  host,  was  shot  dead,  and  an  indescribable  scene  of 
terror  and  tumult  followed.  In  spite  of  the  efforts  of  a  few 
humane  officers,  the  work  of  revenge  did  not  cease  till  the 
arrival  of  General  Schauenbourg  two  days  afterwards. 

The  Stanz  disaster  happened   on  the  9th  of  September, 


132          PESTALOZZI:    HIS  LIFE  AND    WORK. 

1798 ;  the  first  number  of  the  Popular  Swiss  News,  of  which 
Pestalozzi  was  the  editor,  had  appeared  the  day  before. 

Truttman,  sub-prefect  of  Arth,  and  the  agent  of  the 
Government  in  Lower  Unterwalden,  made  a  detailed  inquiry 
into  the  losses  resulting  from  this  terrible  event.  We  find 
them  stated  as  follows  in  the  report  of  the  Minister  of  the 
Inferior,  Rengger: 

"  Dead  :  259  men,  102  women,  25  children.1 

"  Buildings  burnt :  340  dwelling-houses,  228  barns,  144 

small  out-houses. 

"Approximate  value  of  buildings  and  furniture  destroyed: 

£85,000. 

"  Of  the  350  people  whose  houses  have  been  burnt,  only  50 
are  in  a  position  to  rebuild  with  their  own  money ;  97  others 
require  more  or  less  help ;  203  have  absolutely  no  means  of 
building  again. 

"  The  most  unfortunate,  however,  are  the  very  large  number 
who  had  no  houses  of  their  own,  and  have  lost  everything 
they  possessed.  Amongst  these  are  111  infirm  old  men; 
169  orphans,  not  counting  77  who  have  been  provided  for 
by  private  charity  in  other  cantons;  and  lastly,  237  other 
children  who,  without  being  orphans,  are  still  practically 
homeless  on  account  of  the  utter  destitution  of  their  families." 

The  Directory  at  once  took  steps  to  send  help  to  these  un- 
fortunate people.  On  the  18th  of  November  it  was  decided 
to  found  an  orphan  home  in  Stanz,  and  the  ministers  Stapfer 
and  Rengger  were  instructed  to  prepare  a  plan  and  find  a 
director  for  the  establishment.  They  decided  to  make  use  of 
the  outer  premises  of  the  women's  convent,  and  part  of  the 
large  field  adjoining.  But  neither  the  heads  of  the  convent 
nor  the  council  of  the  canton  were  consulted  in  the  matter, 
and  this  choice  excited  violent  opposition.  In  consequence 
of  the  objections  raised  by  the  convent  authorities,  the 
council  pointed  out  to  the  minister  Stapfer  the  grave  in- 
convenience of  placing  an  orphan  asylum  in  a  building 
which  was  already  used  by  the  nuns  as  a  girls'  school,  and 

1  Ibis  first  computation  was  undoubtedly  incomplete,  for  the  monu- 
ment erected  in  Stanz  cemetery  in  1807  makes  tbe  number  of  dead 
414. 


PESTALOZZI  AT  STANZ.  133 

of  taking  over  out-buildings  in  which  the  servants  lived  who 
were  charged  with  the  management  of  the  cattle  and  the 
estate.  The  Government,  however,  was  firm,  and  its  orders 
were  carried  out. 

At  the  same  time  Rengger  had  instructed  the  siib-prefect 
Truttman,  and  Meyer,  Minister  of  Justice  and  Police,  to  try 
and  find  a  man  and  his  wife  to  take  entire  charge  of  the 
proposed  establishment.  But  as  they  deemed  it  essential  that 
the  Director  should  be  a  Catholic,  all  their  efforts  were 
unsuccessful. 

Meanwhile  Pestalozzi  was  burning  with  the  desire  to  go 
and  be  a  father  and  teacher  to  the  Unterwalden  orphans ;  it 
seemed  indeed  almost  a  providential  opportunity  for  putting 
into  practice  the  ideas  which  had  so  long  engrossed  his  atten- 
tion. He  accordingly  informed  directors  Stapfer  and  Legrand 
of  his  wish. 

To  the  latter  he  had  already  fully  explained  his  views  and 
plans,  and  he  had  done,  so  the  more  freely  and  gladly  that 
he  had  found  him  to  be  not  only  thoroughly  sympathetic  but 
in  complete  agreement  with  him. 

A  new  plan  presented  by  Pestalozzi  was  warmly  recom- 
mended by  Stapfer,  Rengger,  and  Legrand,  and  on  the  5th  of 
December,  1798,  the  Directory  issued  a  decree,  the  principle 
clauses  of  which  were  as  follows : 

"The  imTinp.dia.tft  control  of  the  poor-house  at  Stanz  is 
entrusted  to  citizen  Pestalozzi. 

"  Children  of  both  sexes,  taken  from  among  the  poorest, 
and  especially  from  the  orphans  in  the  Stanz  district,  will  be 
received  in  it  and  brought  up  gratuitously. 

"  Children  will  not  be  received  before  the  age  of  five  years  ; 
they  will  remain  till  they  are  fit  to  go  into  service,  or  to 
learn  such  a  trade  as  could  not  be  taught  them  in  the 
establishment. 

"The  poor-house  will  be  managed  with  all  the  care  and 
economy  that  such  an  institution  requires.  The  children  will 
gradually  be  led  to  take  part  in  all  work  necessary  for  the 
carrying  on  and  support  of  the  establishment.  The  time  of 
the  pupils  will  be  divided  between  field-work,  house-work, 
and  study.  An  attempt  will  be  made  to  develop  in  the  pupils 
as  much  skill,  and  as  many  useful  powers  as  the  funds  of 
the  establishment  will  allow.  So  far  as  it  is  possible  to  do 


134          PESTALOZZI:    HIS  LIFE  AND    WORK. 

so  without  danger  to  the  industrial  results  which  are  to  be 
aimed  at,  a  few  lessons  will  be  given  during  the  manual 
labour. 

"  All  the  out-buildings  of  the  women's  convent  at  Stanz  are 
to  be  devoted  to  the  purposes  of  the  establishment,  as  well  as 
a  certain  portion  of  the  adjoining  meadow-land.  These  build- 
ings will  at  once  be  repaired  and  fitted  up  for  the  reception 
of  eighty  pupils,  according  to  the  plans  drawn  up  by  citizen 
Schmidt,  of  Lucerne.  For  the  founding  of  the  asylum,  the 
Minister  of  the  Interior  will,  once  for  all,  place  a  sum  of  two 
hundred  and  forty  pounds  at  the  disposal  of  the  committee 
(Pestalozzi,  Truttman,  sub-prefect  of  Arth,  and  the  priest 
Businger  of  Stanz)." 

A  new  editor  was  at  once  found  for  the  Popular  Swiss 
News,  and  on  the  7th  of  December  Pestalozzi  arrived  in 
Stanz  to  superintend  the  repairs. 

A  few  days  later  his  wife  wrote  the  following  lines  in  her 
diary : 

"  In  December,  1798,  Pestalozzi  went  to  Stanz  to  take 
charge  of  a  number  of  children  whose  parents  were  killed  in 
a  sad  combat  because  they  would  not  accept  the  new  Consti- 
tution. It  is  a  great  trouble  to  us  all,  to  faithful  Lisbeth, 
and  our  friends,  as  well  as  the  children  and  myself,  to  see 
him  undertake  such  a  task  at  his  age.  When  I  told  him  of 
our  anxiety,  he  answered : 

" '  My  fate  and  yours  will  now  be  decided.  If  your  hus- 
band has  not  been  misunderstood,  if  he  really  deserves  the 
scorn  and  neglect  with  which  he  has  generally  been  treated, 
there  is  no  hope  for  us.  But  if  I  have  been  unfairly  judged, 
if  I  am  really  worth  what  I  think  I  am,  you  will  soon  find  me 
a  comfort  and  support.  But  enough  ;  your  words  stab  me  to 
the  heart ;  I  can  no  longer  bear  your  incredulity.  Write  to 
me  then  hopefully.  You  have  waited  thirty  years,  will  you 
not  wait  another  three  months  ?  I  have  not  yet  any  children 
here,  but  plenty  of  workmen.  The  Government  are  giving 
the  undertaking  wise  support,  and  are  showing  me  much 
good  will." 

The  alterations  and  repairs  had  been  begun  at  a  bad  time 
of  year,  and  proceeded  slowly ;  the  winter  was  early  and 


PESTALOZZI  AT  STANZ.  135 

severe,  and  it  was  the  middle  of   January  before  the  first 
children  were  admitted. 

At  the  same  time  there  was  much  distress  and  suffering  in 
the  country,  as  is  evident  from  the  following  extract  from 
an  official  report  made  by  the  sub-prefect  Truttman  : 

"  The  distress  of  the  inhabitants  of  the  Stanz  district  in 
indescribable ;  it  increases  every  day,  and  affects  more  or  less 
everybody.  The  many  poor  people  whose  former  benefactors 
have  lost  all  means  of  helping  them  have  nothing  to  live  upon 
beyond  what  they  receive  from  the  Government,  and  the  alms 
which  are  sent  to  them  from  other  cantons.  Their  sufferings 
in  this  extreme  and  prolonged  cold  are  inexpressible  ;  their 
small  stock  of  potatoes  is  frozen,  and  they  have  no  other  food  ; 
there  is  already  much  sickness  among  them." 

At  last,  on  the  14th  of  January,  1799,  Truttman  wrote  to 
Rengger : 

"To-day  the  first  children  have  been  received  into  the 
orphanage.  May  God  bless  our  good  Government  for  this 
beneficent  work.  I  look  forward  to  the  best  results  from  it. 
It  was  not  without  deep  emotion  that  I  saw  these  poor  ragged 
creatures  rescued  at  last  from  their  unhappy  condition,  and 
admitted  into  an  establishment  where  their  education  and 
future  independence  will  be  properly  provided  for." 

A  few  days  later  the  numbers  had  reached  fifty.     Never  I 
did  an  educational  institution  open  under  such  unfavourable 
conditions.    So  important  was  it  to  come  at  once  to  the  rescue  > 
of  these  unfortunate  children  that  they  were  admitted  before-  / 
the  buildings  were  ready.     There  was  nothing  really  habit- 
able but  one  small  room ;  all  the  others  were  full  of  plaster 
and  rubbish ;  even  the  kitchen  was  not  yet  in  order.     The 
children,  who  were  covered  with  sores  and  vermin,  brought 
with  them    not   only   diseases,   but    deplorable   habits   and 
inveterate  vices.     To  manage  this  household,  to  watch  over 
the  cleanliness,  health,  and  education  of  these  children,  Pes- 
talozzi  was  alone  with  one  woman-servant. 

We  have  before  our  eyes  the  first  list  of  the  children  that 
Pestalozzi  drew  up  and  sent  to  the  Directory,  in  which  he 
mentions  twenty-nine  boys  and  sixteen  girls.  We  will  copy  a 
few  of  the  names,  with  the  observations  that  accompany  them : 


136        PESTALOZZI:    HIS  LIFE  AND    WORK. 

11  BOYS. 

"J..  Jacob  Baggenstoss,  fifteen,  of  Stanzstad;  father  dead, 
mother  living ;  good  health,  little  capacity ;  can  do  nothing 
else  but  spin  cotton  ;  accustomed  to  begging. 

"  2.  Francis  Joseph  Businger,  fourteen,  of  Stanz ;  father 
living,  mother  dead  ;  good  health,  good  capacity,  and  good 
manners  ;  does  not  know  his  ABC,  can  spin  cotton ;  very 
poor. 

"  3.  Gaspard  Joseph  Waser,  eleven,  of  Stanzstad ;  father 
living,  mother  dead ;  healthy,  good  capacity,  but  wild  and 
ill-mannered ;  does  not  know  his  A  B  C  ;  cannot  spin ;  accus- 
tomed to  begging. 

"  4.  Charles,  brother  of  the  above,  ten ;  same  manners  and 
same  antecedents  as  his  brother. 

"  26.  Mathias  Odermatt,  eight,  of  Stanz ;  father  killed, 
mother  living;  deformed  and  sickly,  weak  and  idle,  knows 
nothing;  poor. 

"  27.  Joseph  Kueffer,  nine,  of  Stanz  ;  non-burgess ;  parents 
living ;  healthy,  fair  capacity,  is  beginning  to  spell,  cannot 
spin ;  poor. 

"  28.  Gaspard  Stieer,  eight,  of  Stanz  ;  father  killed,  mother 
living ;  bad  health,  more  than  average  capacity,  unwilling  to 
learn,  is  beginning  the  ABC,  can  spin  ;  very  poor. 

"  29.  "  Jacob  Adacher,  seven,  of  Kirsiten ;  father  killed, 
mother  living  ;  healthy,  timid,  knows  nothing ;  very  poor. 

"  GIRLS. 

"  1.  Anna  Josephine  Amstad,  fifteen,  of  Stanz  ;  father  dead, 
mother  living ;  healthy,  fair  capacity,  is  beginning  to  read, 
and  can  spin  ;  extremely  poor. 

"  2.  Clara  Waser,  twelve,  of  Stanzstad ;  father  living, 
mother  dead ;  healthy,  fair  capacity,  fond  of  study,  does  not 
know  her  ABC,  can  spin ;  accustomed  to  begging. 

"  3.  Josephine  Rieter,  thirteen,  of  Stanz ;  father  and 
mother  both  dead ;  healthy,  average  capacity,  is  beginning 
to  read,  can  spin  ;  extremely  poor. 

"  4.  Anna  Maria  Beutschgi,  eleven,  of  Stanz ;  father 
banished,  mother  dead  ;  healthy,  exceedingly  neglected,  knows 
nothing,  very  bad  habits ;  very  poor. 

"  15.  Barbara  Spilknater,  ten,  of  Stanz ;  father  dead, 
mother  living ;  healthy,  good  capacity,  knows  nothing,  good 
habits ;  poor. 


PESTALOZZI  AT  STANZ.  137 

"  16.  Catherine  Aieer,  five,  of  Stanz ;  father  killed,  mother 
living ;  healthy,  good  capacity,  knows  nothing  ;  poor." 

In  spite  of  all  these  obstacles,  and  in  spite  of  the  little 
practical  ability  of  the  director,  the  success  was  immediate, 
almost  miraculous. 

Scarcely  a  month  had  passed  when  Truttman,  in  his  report 
to  the  minister  Rengger,  dated  the  llth  of  February,  1799, 
wrote  as  follows : 

"The  poor-house  is  doing  well.  Pestalozzi  works  night 
and  day.  There  are  now  seventy-two  children  in  the  estab- 
lishment, though  not  more  than  fifty  can  stay  all  night, 
as  there  are  not  enough  beds.  It  is  astonishing  to  see  how 
active  this  indefatigable  man  is,  and  how  much  progress 
his  pupils  have  made  in  so  short  a  time.  They  are  now 
eager  for  instruction.  In  a  few  years  the  State  will  certainly 
be  more  than  repaid  for  the  sacrifices  it  is  making  for  this 
useful  institution.  I  hope  the  good  nuns  may  soon  go  to 
heaven,  or  to  some  other  convent." 

This  testimony  is  confirmed  by  the  report  that  Bu  singer 
made  to  the  Directory  in  the  same  week,  which  runs  as 
follows : 

"  The  poor-house  has  started,  and  is  going  on  well.  More 
than  seventy  children  have  already  been  received,  and 
every  day  brings  more  applications  for  admission.  Citizen 
Pestalozzi  works  incessantly  for  the  progress  of  the  estab- 
lishment, and  it  is  hardly  credible  how  far  he  has  been  able 
to  bring  his  work  in  so  short  a  time." 

Pestalozzi,  then,  had  surmounted  the  internal  obstacles, 
those,  that  is,  which  he  could  attack  directly,  but  there  were 
others  outside  which  compromised  the  final  success  of  his 
work.  These  obstacles  were,  on  the  one  hand,  the  distrust, 
ill-will,  and  even  open  opposition  of  the  district  he  had  come 
to  help  ;  on  the  other,  the  unsound  opinions  of  men  who 
were  thought  to  be  competent,  but  who,  accustomed  to  the 
old  educational  tracks,  and  misunderstanding  Pestalozzi's 
thought,  condemned  him  the  moment  he  deviated  from  the 
pattern  on  which  they  themselves  were  formed. 

The  people  of  Lower  Unterwalden  detested  the  unitary 
Government  which  had  been  the  cause  of  their  late  mis- 
11 


138          PESTALOZZ1:    HIS  LIFE  AND    WORK. 

fortunes,  and  were  convinced  that  it  was  only  looking  after 
their  children  for  the  purpose  of  winning  them  over  to  this 
new  and  hated  Constitution.  They  were,  besides,  entirely 
and  exclusively  Catholic ;  never  had  a  Protestant  held  the 
smallest  office  amongst  them,  much  less  an  educational  one, 
and  in  the  eyes  of  most  of  them,  the  poor  children,  by  being 
put  under  the  care  of  the  heretic  Pestalozzi,  were  in  danger 
of  losing  their  souls. 

At  the  same  time  the  work  of  this  man  was  like  no  other 
work  of  the  same  sort,  because  it  consisted  in  putting  into 
practice  a  new  idea,  and  often  necessitated  the  adoption  of 
methods  which  were  the  direct  opposite  of  those  hitherto  in 
use.  For  instance,  Pestalozzi  worked  without  any  settled 
plan,  without  any  apparent  order,  and  without  dividing  his 
children  into  classes.  He  was  constantly  with  them,  giving 
proof  of  his  affection  for  them  in  everything  he  did  and  watch- 
ing to  take  advantage  of  the  slightest  manifestation  of  their 
faculties,  powers,  and  good  impulses,  like  a  gardener  who, 
in  tending  a  young  tree,  waits  for  its  shoots  to  appear  before 
deciding  how  to  train  them.  That  is  why  he  had  not  asked 
for  help,  and  indeed  no  one  could  have  been  of  much  use  to 
him,  an  experienced  teacher  least  of  all.  At  first  he  had 
neither  books  nor  school  material,  nor  did  he  ask  for  any, 
wishing  nothing  for  his  children,  beyond  the  simple  neces- 
saries of  life,  but  contact  with  himself  and  with  Nature. 

The  system  of  which  we  have  just  given  such  an  im- 
perfect sketch,  is  set  forth  clearly  and  completely  in  the 
letter  on  his  stay  at  Stanz,  written  by  Pestalozzi  to  his 
friend  Gessner.  Our  readers  will  find  this  letter  farther  on, 
for  its  account  of  its  author's  doctrine  makes  it  of  great 
importance.  We  have  felt  it  better  not  to  interrupt  our 
account  of  the  Stanz  asylum,  an  account,  it  must  be  added, 
which  is  entirely  based  on  official  documents  ;  but  what  we 
have  just  said  as  to  Pestalozzi's  method,  was  necessary  for 
tho  understanding  of  the  various  judgments  expressed  about 
him  while  he  was  engaged  in  the  work. 

Visitors  to  the  establishment,  for  instance,  often  saw 
nothing  but  disorder  and  confusion,  with  an  entire  absence, 
as  it  seemed,  of  all  serious  instruction. 

At  the  same  time  the  poor-committee,  who  felt  that  their 
chief  duty  was  to  put  the  children  in  the  way  of  earning 
something  as  soon  as  possible,  complained  that  time  was 


PESTALOZZI  AT  bTANZ.  139 

being  lost,  and  calculated  the  profit  that  might  have  been 
made  by  the  manufacture  of  silk,  an  industry,  however,  for 
which  there  were  absolutely  no  appliances. 

The  sub-prefect  Truttman,  a  capable  and  well-meaning 
man,  also  failed  to  understand  Pestalozzi's  thought,  and  the 
higher  end  he  had  in  view,  being  deceived  by  appearances. 
In  his  report  to  the  minister,  dated  the  25th  of  March,  1 799, 
he  wrote  as  follows  : 

"  I  must  tell  you  frankly  that  the  appointment  of  a  bursar, 
the  classification  of  the  children,  both  for  instruction  and 
manual  work,  the  installation  of  the  necessary  superinten- 
dents and  masters,  can  no  longer  be  put  off  without  danger 
to  this  useful  institution.  If  I  were  not  confined  to  my  room 
by  a  swollen  foot,  I  should  come  to  Lucerne  to-morrow  to 
speak  freely  to  you  about  this  important  matter.  I  admire 
the  zeal  of  citizen  Pestalozzi,  and  his  indefatigable  activity 
in  his  work,  and  he  certainly  deserves  our  gratitude  ;  but 
I  foresee  that  he  will  be  incapable  of  carrying  out  his 
ideas,  and  of  giving  the  enterprise  the  carefully  ordered 
development  which  is  necessary  for  its  success.  Indeed, 
without  a  new  organization,  which  shall  take  into  consider- 
ation all  the  various  needs  of  the  establishment,  it  cannot 
succeed.  This  excellent  man  has  both  firmness  and  gentle- 
ness, but  unfortunately  he  often  uses  them  at  the  wrong 
time.  I  have  frequently  spoken  with  him  on  the  subject. 
I  begged  him  even  to  go  to  Zurich,  to  study  in  detail  the 
organization  of  the  poor-school  in  that  town,  with  a  view 
to  copying  it,  as  far  as  possible,  in  Stanz.  He  accordingly 
went,  but  I  do  not  look  for  any  satisfactory  result  from  his 
visit,  because  his  idea  is  to  do  everything  himself,  without 
any  plan,  and  without  any  other  aid  than  that  of  the  chil- 
dren themselves.  The  establishment  needs  a  larger  staff. 
But  where  are  helpers  to  be  found  ?  I  beg  of  you,  cit  izen 
minister,  for  the  honour  of  the  Government,  and  for  the 
public  good,  to  lay  this  matter  to  heart,  and  find  a  remedy 
before  the  evil  is  too  great." 

But  the  Directory  would  not  allow  Pestalozzi  to  be  in- 
terfered with,  and  left  him  complete  liberty  of  action.  He 
was  not  happy,  however,  but  suffered  terribly,  both  from 
the  hostility  of  the  district  where  he  had  expected  to  find 


140        PESTALOZZI:    HIS  LIFE  AND    WORK. 

gratitude,  and  from  the  opposition  that  his  work  was  exciting 
amongst  the  very  people  on  whom  he  had  relied  for  its  sup- 
port. In  spite  of  his  burning  faith  and  courage,  he  feared 
at  times  that  this  new  undertaking,  which  had  filled  him 
with  such  great  hopes,  would  fail  like  the  rest,  and  by  its 
failure  rob  the  idea  that  had  engrossed  his  thoughts  for  the 
last  thirty  years,  of  all  its  value  for  himself,  his  country,  and 
humanity. 

This  trouble  comes  out  in  the  first  report  that  he  sent  to 
the  minister  Rengger,  which  is  dated  the  19th  of  April,  1799, 
and  is  couched  in  these  terms : 

"  Citizen  Minister, — 

"  I  know  and  feel  that  it  is  my  duty  not  to  leave  you 
without  information  as  to  the  progress  of  the  institution,  but 
I  am  oppressed  by  the  weight  of  the  many  urgent  things 
to  be  done,  which  can  be  done  only  by  me.  Unfortunately, 
what  absorbs  my  strength  is  not  the  essential  work  of  the 
establishment,  but  a  multitude  of  minor  details.  In  spite 
of  the  success  of  my  efforts  hitherto,  I  am  powerless  to 
do  all  I  would,  for  want  of  a  few  paltry  kitchen  utensils, 
for  which  citizen  Haas  has  kept  me  waiting  for  a  fortnight 
without  even  noticing  my  applications.  At  the  same  time 
political  animosity,  which  is  beginning  to  make  itself  felt 
again  here,  is  exercising  a  fatal  influence  on  the  children,  and 
those  who  ought  to  try  and  check  this  animosity  say  that 
this  is  not  the  time  to  make  people  dissatisfied  for  the  sake 
of  an  orphan  asylum.  I  have  already  accomplished  much, 
and  I  long  for  the  time  to  come  when  you  will  be  able  to 
come  and  judge  for  yourself  of  the  good  results  that  have 
been  obtained  in  an  establishment  which  started  amid  so 
many  difficulties,  and  especially  of  those  which  may  confidently 
be  looked  forward  to,  if  the  work  is  continued  on  the  same 
principles  and  on  the  same  method.  I  shall  endeavour  shortly 
to  draw  up  a  clear  account  of  the  money  I  have  received,  and 
shall  send  it  to  you.  Workmen  here  are  very  dear,  and  there 
are  prejudices  which  prevent  my  always  doing  things  in  the 
cheapest  manner ;  but  I  shall  steadily  continue  to  use  my  best 
efforts  to  carry  out  the  objects  of  the  institution  as  economically 
as  possible. 

"  The  hours  of  work  and  study  are  now  fixed  as  follows : 
from  six  to  eight,  lessons ;  then  manual  work  till  four  in  the 


PESTALOZZI  AT  STANZ.  141 

afternoon;  then  lessons  again  till  eight.  The  health  of  the 
children  is  excellent.  The  difficulty  of  combining  work  and 
instruction  grows  less  every  day ;  the  children  are  slowly 
learning  to  be  orderly,  and  to  apply  themselves.  You  can 
imagine  how  much  trouble  it  has  taken  to  bring  these  neglected 
little  mountain-children  as  far  even  as  this.  We  are  only  the 
more  pleased  at  having  reached  our  end.  Several  children 
have  had  a  sort  of  bilious,  feverish  cold,  but  are  now  almost 
well  again.  I  am  waiting  impatiently  for  letters  from  Zurich 
on  the  subject  of  the  assistants  of  both  sexes  of  whom  I  stand 
in  need ;  I  should  be  glad,  too,  to  be  reassured  by  hearing 
that  your  views  coincide  with  mine. 

"  Allow  me  to  commend  the  institution  and  myself  to  your 
kind  consideration. 

"  With  respect  and  gratitude, 

"  PESTALOZZI." 

In  spite  of  everything  the  undertaking  prospered.  The 
children  had  arrived  with  sad,  troubled  faces,  with  eyes  weary 
and  timid,  or  bold  and  distrustful,  some  apathetic,  some 
rebellious.  But  they  had  undergone  the  same  transformation 
as  Nature  when  she  revives  under  the  breath  of  spring,  and 
were  now  joyful,  unrestrained,  eager,  active,  gentle,  and  kind. 

The  24th  of  May,  1799,  was  a  great  day  for  the  institution 
and  its  director.  On  that  day  Pestalozzi  took  his  whole 
establishment  to  Lucerne,  where  they  were  welcomed  by 
the  Executive  Directory,  the  highest  authority  in  Switzer- 
land, each  child  receiving  a  new  silver  coin  worth  a  little 
more  than  a  shilling.  It  is  evident  from  this  that  the 
director  Legrand  had  paid  little  heed  to  Pestalozzi's  de- 
tractors. 

Unfortunately,  the  institution  was  near  its  end  It  con- 
tained eighty  children  and  was  in  full  prosperity,  when,  a 
fortnight  after  the  excursion  to  Lucerne,  unforeseen  events 
made  its  further  existence  impossible. 

The  chances  of  the  war  brought  the  French  troops  once 
more  into  the  canton.  They  had  a  great  number  of  sick 
with  them,  and  Zschokke,  the  Government  agent,  could  find 
no  other  place  for  a  hospital  but  Pestalozzi's  orphanage.  On 
the  8th  of  June,  1799,  sixty  of  the  children  were  sent  away, 
homes  being  found  for  them  in  different  families.  This  left 
only  twenty  in  the  establishment.  Under  these  circum- 


142        PESTALOZZI:    HIS  LIFE  AND    WORK. 

stances  Pestalozzi  himself  was  unwilling  to  stay.  He  gave 
two  suits  of  clothes  and  a  little  money  to  each  child  who  had 
been  sent  away,  put  the  furniture  in  safety  in  Lucerne,  and 
handed  over  to  Zschokke  what  money  he  had  left,  amounting 
to  rather  more  than  a  hundred  pounds. 

Then,  utterly  broken  down  in  health,  he  retired  to  the 
Gurnige]  for  the  waters.  He  had  worked  far  beyond  his 
strength,  and  was  so  worn  out  that  he  spat  blood. 

The  Directory  only  heard  of  these  events  when  they  were 
already  accomplished  facts,  and  in  its  sitting  of  the  17th  of 
June,  1799,  it  granted  Pestalozzi  a  small  sum  of  money 
(about  twenty-five  pounds)  for  his  services  in  connection  with 
the  Stanz  institution. 

The  orders  given  by  Zschokke,  Pestalozzi's  departure,  and 
the  subsequent  final  closing  of  the  establishment,  blamed  by 
some,  approved  by  others,  gave  rise  to  much  angry  discussion, 
in  which  the  facts  were  often  considerably  strained.  For 
the  sake  of  making  known  the  real  truth  of  the  matter,  we 
shall  continue  to  quote  from  authentic  documents. 

For  instance,  Zschokke,  in  his  report  to  the  minister 
Rengger  of  the  28th  of  June,  1799,  says : 

"I  have  not  closed  the  Stanz  orphanage,  that  noble  monu- 
ment of  Swiss  beneficence ;  I  have  simply  reduced  the 
number  of  children.  Such  an  establishment  deserves  to  be 
maintained  even  amid  the  troubles  of  the  war ;  I,  at  least, 
will  not  be  the  one  to  suppress  it.  The  large  number  of 
soldiers  to  be  lodged,  the  absence  of  any  place  fit  for  a 
hospital  for  the  sick  and  wounded  defenders  of  our  country, 
the  anxiety  of  the  parents  who,  on  the  approach  of  the  war, 
asked  to  be  allowed  to  take  their  children  till  the  danger 
had  passed,  these  and  a  hundred  other  reasons  made  it 
imperative  that  the  numbers  of  the  establishment  should  be 
reduced.  In  accordance  with  my  strict  injunctions,  no  chil- 
dren have  been  sent  away,  save  those  whose  parents  or 
friends  assured  either  Pestalozzi  or  myself  that  they  would 
be  properly  looked  after  for  a  time.  Pestalozzi  gave  them 
each  a  change  of  clothes,  some  linen,  and  a  little  money.  At 
the  present  moment  there  still  remain  in  the  establishment 
twenty-two  children  of  both  sexes.  Citizen  van  Matt,1  a 

1  Van  Matt  was  a  blacksmith. 


PESTALOZZI  AT  STANZ.  143 

member  of  the  Stanz  municipality,  and  a  kind,  fatherly  man, 
has  undertaken  to  superintend  the  establishment  for  nothing. 
He  visits  it  several  times  a  day.  The  greatest  attention  is 
paid  to  cleanliness  and  order.  The  Capuchin  friars  take 
turns  in  teaching  the  children  reading,  writing,  and  reli- 
gion. 

"  It  is  a  real  pleasure  to  me  to  see  these  little  ones  in 
their  tidy  rooms,  with  health,  joy,  and  innocence  so  clearly 
expressed  in  their  faces.  Their  appearance  alone  is  reward 
enough  for  those  who  founded  the  establishment.  Here, 
too,  Pestalozzi,  by  his  generous  activity,  has  raised  himself 
a  monument  which  can  never  be  forgotten." 

We  feel  that  we  ought  to  supplement  the  details  contained 
in  this  report  by  what  Zschokke  wrote  five  years  afterwards 
in  his  History  of  the  Memorable  Facts  of  the  Swiss  Revo- 
lution, 1804,  vol.  ii.  p.  259 : 

"  One  of  the  first  unfortunate  consequences  of  the  return 
of  the  French  to  Unterwalden  was  that,  for  want  of  a  better 
place  for  a  hospital,  that  part  of  the  out-buildings  of  the 
women's  convent  at  Stanz  in  which  the  noble  Pestalozzi  was 
living  with  his  orphans,  had  to  be  made  over  to  them.  Even 
if  it  had  been  possible  to  save  the  orphanage,  by  putting  tne 
sick  into  one  of  the  crowded  houses  in  the  town  that  had 
escaped  the  fire,  the  military  authorities  would  never  have 
consented  to  it.  Pestalozzi  realized  this  painful  necessity, 
and  yielded  to  it,  though  not  without  sorrow.  .  .  . 

"  With  Pestalozzi  disappeared  the  spirit  of  his  teaching. 
The  orphans,  however,  were  still  carefully  taught,  and  such 
matters  as  order  and  cleanliness,  which  had  previously  been 
somewhat  neglected,  received  particular  attention.  Van 
Matt  deserves  the  highest  praise  for  the  zeal  with  which  he 
undertook  the  general  superintendence  of  the  establishment. 
He  received  valuable  help  from  the  parish  priest  Businger." 

On  the  4th  of  July,  1799,  the  sub-prefect  Truttman  wrote 
to  Rengger : 

"  It  was  only  a  few  days  afterwards  that  I  heard  of  the 
break  up  of  the  Stanz  orphanage.  It  was  simply  the  result 
of  the  general  terror.  There  are  still  twenty-two  children 
in  the  establishment.  For  their  support,  citizen  Van  Matt 


144          PESTALOZZI:    HIS  LIFE  AND    WORK. 

a  most  honourable  man,  whom  the  municipality  have  made 
superintendent,  has  asked  me  for  dried  fruits,  potatoes, 
and  peas,  which  I  have  accordingly  sent  him.  I  must  ask 
you,  citizen  minister,  to  give  me  definite  instructions  as  to 
whether  I  am  to  continue  to  furnish  provisions  to  the 
establishment,  and  generally  as  to  what  I  am  expected  to  do 
for  it." 

The  same  year,  in  the  month  of  August,  Zschokke  wrote 
to  the  Directory  asking  that,  as  the  scene  of  war  had  once 
more  shifted  from  Stanz,  the  orphanage  there  should  be 
revived  and  submitted  to  a  thorough  reorganization,  and 
that  its  management  should  be  entrusted  to  himself  and 
Truttman. 

This  request  was  granted,  but  the  thorough  reorganization 
was  slow  in  coming,  for  on  the  16th  of  September,  1799, 
Truttman  wrote  : 

"  The  poor-school  now  contains  forty  children,  boys  and 
girls,  but  everything  necessary  for  carrying  out  the  purpose 
for  which  it  was  founded  is  absolutely  wanting.     The  chil 
dren  are  fed,  and  that  is  all !  " 

At  last,  in  October,  Zschokke  presented  his  scheme  for 
reorganization,  which  was  little  more  than  a  consideration  of 
the  best  way  of  providing  funds  for  the  institution,  so  as  to 
make  it  as  small  a  burden  as  possible  to  the  national  budget. 
He  proposed  that  the  expense  should  no  longer  fall  upon  the 
Government,  but  that  it  should  be  met  partly  by  the  convent 
estate,  and  partly  by  the  profits  of  a  cotton  mill  in  which 
the  children  would  be  employed.  Of  the  internal  organiza- 
tion, looked  at  from  the  intellectual  and  moral  point  of  view, 
he  said  nothing. 

In  the  report  which  accompanied  this  scheme,  we  read  : 

"  There  are  now  thirty-eight  children  of  both  sexes  in  the 
orphanage.  I  have  made  the  town-councillor  Van  Matt  in- 
spector. He  has  hitherto  carried  out  his  duties  gratuitously. 
He  visits  the  establishment  every  day,  looks  after  the  ac- 
counts, the  purchases,  the  order  of  the  children,  etc. 

"  I  have,  besides,  employed  a  poor,  honest  citizen,  Remigi 
Gut,  who  sleeps  in  the  school,  is  constantly  with  the  children, 
and  gives  them  reading  and  writing  lessons  four  hours  a  day. 


PESTALOZZI  AT  STANZ.  145 

I  have  had  some  models  prepared  for  him  by  my  secretary, 
and  have  furnished  him  with  a  few  books.  I  have  told  him 
that  if  he  succeeds  in  making  the  children  apply  themselves 
to  their  work,  he  may  hope  to  receive  a  small  salary  in 
addition  to  his  keep/' 

The  state  of  the  institution,  however,  continued  very  much 
the  same  as  we  find  it  in  Truttman's  letter  of  the  16th  of 
September,  quoted  above.  This  is  evident  from  the  following 
memorial  addressed  to  the  Directory  in  November,  1799,  by 
Businger : 

"  The  first  thing  to  which  I  am  anxious  to  call  your  atten- 
tion, citizen  directors,  is  the  orphanage  at  Stanz.  This  useful 
institution  is  your  work  ;  it  is  to  your  fatherliness  that  it 
owes  its  existence.  But  as  it  exists  at  present,  and  indeed 
as  it  has  existed  for  some  time  already,  it  does  none  of  the 
good  that  it  was  expected  to  do,  and  seems  in  danger  of 
coming  to  an  end  even  before  its  good  results  have  been 
made  known.  Citizen  Pestalozzi  undertook  the  direction 
of  this  orphan-home  with  the  best  possible  intentions,  and 
with  an  exemplary  activity ;  but  his  disposition  had  been 
embittered  by  many  misfortunes,  and  this,  combined  with 
the  weakness  which  resulted  from  his  age,  with  his  neglect 
of  externals,  and  with  many  mistakes  into  which  he  had 
fallen  from  the  very  beginning,  prevented  the  institution 
from  ever  being  in  a  position  to  realize  its  objects,  and 
made  all  clear-sighted  men  long  to  see  the  good  Pestalozzi 
anywhere  else  but  there.  When  the  French  made  Stanz 
their  head-quarters,  and  took  the  rooms  of  the  orphanage  for 
their  military  hospital,  most  of  the  children  had  to  be  sent 
away,  and  Pestalozzi  himself  withdrew.  But  after  the 
departure  of  the  French,  the  poorest  orphans  were  taken 
back  again  into  the  vacant  rooms.  A.  worthy  member  of 
our  town-council  temporarily  undertook  their  superintendence. 
As  many  as  forty  poor  children  are  thus  provided  with  a  very 
comfortable  home,  where  they  are  fed,  and  taught  reading 
and  writing ;  but  the  whole  establishment  shows  signs  that 
ruin  is  imminent,  and  in  truth  I  shall  see  it  come  to  an  end 
without  much  regret." 

Businger's  memorial  was  sent  to  the  minister  Stapfer  to  be 


146        PESTALOZZI:    HIS  LIFE  AND    WORK. 

reported  on.  His  report,  which  was  in  French,  was  entirely 
favourable  to  Pestalozzi,  and  runs  as  follows : 

"  The  memorial  of  citizen  Businger  begins  by  insinuating 
that  citizen  Pestalozzi  was  not  fitted  to  be  the  director  of 
this  institution. 

"I  regret  to  say  that,  in  consequence  of  prejudices,  of 
which  I  cannot  now  examine  either  the  source  or  the  nature, 
this  excellent  and  well-known  old  man  has  reason  to  be 
greatly  dissatisfied  with  the  treatment  he  has  received  at 
the  hands  of  citizens  Zschokke  and  Businger.  By  their 
exaggerated  complaints  they  have  paralyzed  an  establishment 
which  promised  to  be  very  useful  to  the  country. 

"  They  accuse  Pestalozzi  of  being  wasteful,  dirty,  and 
brutal,  and  of  having  lost  the  affections  of  his  pupils." 

Stapfer  then  examines  these  different  charges  in  detail, 
and  refutes  them  one  after  the  other  by  citing  certain  well- 
known  facts.  After  referring  again  to  Pestalozzi's  views, 
and  to  the  good  that  might  be  effected  by  their  realization, 
he  concludes  as  follows  : 

"  In  my  opinion,  it  is  important  that  citizen  Pestalozzi 
should  be  restored  to  the  post  which  the  misfortunes  of  the 
war  have  compelled  him  to  give  up." 

Meanwhile,  rest  and  the  waters  of  the  Gurnigel  had 
restored  the  old  man's  health,  and  he  was  now  eager  to  return 
to  Stanz  to  continue  his  interrupted  work. 

"  I  could  not,"  he  said,  "  live  without  my  work ;  I  was 
like  a  man  who  rests  for  a  few  moments  on  a  rock  in  the  sea, 
impatient  all  the  time  to  go  on  swimming." 

/  In  spite  of  his  burning  desire,  in  spite  of  all  Stapfer's 
efforts,  the  Directory  did  not  send  Pestalozzi  back  to  Stanz, 
but  allowed  the  orphanage  to  be  closed. 

In   our   opinion,   this  action   of   the   Directory  was  most 
•  fortunate  both  for  Pestalozzi  and  for  education. 

The  noble  old  man  had  undertaken  a  task  which  was 
beyond  his  strength.  It  had  already  nearly  brought  him  to 
death's  door,  and  he  certainly  would  not  have  been  able  to 
carry  it  on  much  longer.  He  encountered,  besides,  the  most 


PESTALOZZI  AT  STANZ.  147 


violent  opposition.  Most  of  the  inhabitants  of  Unterwalden 
saw  in  him  nothing  but  an  agent  of  revolutionaries  and 
heretics.  They  easily  believed  all  the  calumnies  of  which 
he  was  the  object,  and  instead  of  looking  on  his  presence  as 
a  blessing,  endured  it  as  an  unjust  punishment  fraught  with 
danger  to  their  country.  Under  these  circumstances,  he 
could  do  them  but  little  good  j  for  it  is  almost  impossible 
to  help  people  against  their  will. 

A  priest  named  Gut,  living  in  Stanz,  has  since  re-echoed 
his  countrymen's  grievances  against  Pestalozzi  in  a  book 
entitled,  The  Surprise-attack  on  Lower  Unterwalden :  its 
Causes  and  its  Consequences.  At  page  579,  he  says  that 
the  choice  of  Pestalozzi  was  a  mischievous  action  on  the 
part  of  the  Directory ;  that  he  kept  the  best  of  everything 
for  himself  and  his  servant,  and  fed  the  children  badly ; 
that  he  dressed  them  like  convicts ;  that  their  eyes  lacked 
lustre,  and  their  cheeks  colour ;  that  they  were  chiefly 
taught  to  imitate  the  cries  of  animals ;  that  he  took  away 
the  furniture  from  Stanz  for  his  institute  at  Burgdorf, 
etc. 

But  as  Mr.  Gut  was  only  a  child  of  five  when  Pestalozzi 
left  Stanz,  his  accusations  are  evidently  nothing  more  than 
the  repetition  of  what  was  said  around  him,  and  are 
scarcely  worth  refuting. 

As  we  thought  it  would  be  interesting,  however,  to 
ascertain  with  what  feelings  Pestalozzi  was  still  remembered 
in  the  district  for  which  he  well-nigh  sacrificed  his  life,  we 
made  inquiries  at  Stanz  at  a  time  when  several  old  men,  who 
remembered  the  poor-school,  were  still  living.  But  all  they 
told  us  was  mere  hearsay ;  none  of  them  could  give  us  any 
positive  facts. 

They  had  heard,  for  instance,  that  the  Directory  had  sent 
Pestalozzi  to  Lower  Unterwalden  to  destroy  the  very  religion 
for  which  its  inhabitants  had  fought;  that  the  priest Businger 
had  been  much  blamed  for  helping  to  foiuid  the  orphanage ; 
that  Pestalozzi's  manners  and  appearance  were  a  sufficient 
proof  that  he  was  incapable ;  and  further,  that  he  was 
mortal^  afraid  of  the  Austrians,  and  at  the  news  of  their 
approach  had  iled  hastily  in  the  night. 

We  also  had  an  interview  with  Mr.  Gut  himself,  whose 
opinions  seemed  to  us  to  have  undergone  considerable  modifi- 
cation since  the  publication  of  his  book,  for  he  did  not  repeat 


148         PESTALOZZI:   HIS  LIFE  AND    V/ORK. 

any  of  the  charges  mentioned  above,  and  only  spoke  oi 
Pestalozzi  in  becoming  terms.  Two  grievances,  however,  he 
still  thought  well  founded.  The  first  was  that  the  teaching 
of  the  Catholic  religion  was  too  much  neglected  in  the  school. 
Yet  he  could  quote  nothing  in  any  of  Pestalozzi's  utterances 
opposed  to  it,  and  could  only  say  that  he  was  reported  to  have 
once  said  to  the  children,  "  Crucifixes  will  not  give  you  bread ; 
you  must  learn  to  work."  The  second  grievance  was  that  he 
sometimes  corrected  the  children  by  striking  them  with  a 
rope. 

To  sum  up,  it  seems  to  us  that  it  was  a  mistake  to  send 
Pestalozzi  to  Stanz,  as  he  could  not  avoid  hurting  the  religious 
feelings  of  the  people  he  was  expected  to  help.  The  opposi- 
tion he  excited  was  not  only  quite  natural,  but,  from  the 
point  of  view  of  the  people  themselves,  was  even  legitimate 
and  meritorious,  and  ought  to  have  been  foreseen.  It  may  be 
said  that  for  five  months  he  did  but  struggle  against  the 
difficulties  of  an  untenable  position,  and  it  is  lucky  that,  when 
he  recovered  from  the  illness  which  so  nearly  proved  fatal,  he 
was  not  allowed  to  continue  his  heroic  efforts. 

The  folly  of  unitarism  did  much  harm  to  Switzerland,  and 
yet,  since  God  is  able  to  bring  good  out  of  evil,  it  gave  rise  to 
an  era  of  true  progress.  In  the  same  way  the  folly  of  Stanz 
resulted  in  the  primary  school  of  the  nineteenth  century,  an 
institution  which  has  already  brought  no  small  increase  of 
strength  and  prosperity  to  those  nations  that  have  adopted 
it. 

Pestalozzi's  experiences  at  Stanz,  their  value  for  his  observ- 
ant mind,  the  principles  his  genius  deduced  from  them  for  a 
natural  and  logical  method  of  elementary  education,  the  whole 
picture,  in  short,  of  the  birth  of  a  great,  fruitful,  and  salutary 
reform,  is  to  be  found  in  the  letter  written  from  the  Gurnigel, 
and  addressed  by  Pestalozzi  to  his  friend  Gessner,  the  book- 
seller, the  son  of  the  author  of  the  Idylls.  This  letter,  in 
which  he  gives  an  account  of  his  work  at  Stanz,  was  printed 
for  the  first  time  in  1807,  in  the  Weekly  Journal  for  the 
Education  of  Humanity,  and  then  in  the  edition  of  Pesta- 
lozzi's works  published  by  Cotta  (vol.  ix.).  It  was  afterwards 
reprinted  in  the  complete  edition  by  Seyffarth.  Parts  of  it 
have  often  been  quoted  by  different  biographers,  who  have 
copied  them  from  each  other.  Its  great  importance  compels 
us  to  give  it  here  in  its  entirety. 


PESTALOZZI  AT  STANZ.  H9 


Letter  from  Pestalozzi  to  a  friend  on  his  work  at  Stanz. 

"  My  friend,  once  more  I  awake  from  a  dream ;  once  more 
I  see  my  work  destroyed,  and  my  failing  strength  wasted. 

u  But,  however  weak  and  unfortunate  my  attempt  may 
have  been,  a  friend  of  humanity  will  not  grudge  a  few 
moments  to  consider  the  reasons  which  convince  me  that  some 
day  a  more  fortunate  posterity  will  certainly  take  up  the 
thread  of  my  hopes  at  the  place  where  it  is  now  broken. 

"From  its  very  beginning  I  looked  on  the  Revolution 
as  a  simple  consequence  of  the  corruption  of  human  nature, 
and  on  the  evils  which  it  produced  as  a  necessary  means  of 
bringing  men  back  to  a  sense  of  the  conditions  which  are 
essential  to  their  happiness. 

"  Although  I  was  by  no  means  prepared  to  accept  all  the 
political  forms  that  a  body  of  such  men  as  the  revolutionists 
might  make  for  themselves,  I  was  inclined  to  look  upon  certain 
points  of  their  Constitution  not  only  as  useful  measures  pro- 
tecting important  interests,  but  as  suggesting  the  principles 
upon  which  all  true  progress  of  humanity  must  be  based. 

"  I  once  more  made  known,  therefore,  as  well  as  I  could,  my 
old  wishes  for  the  education  of  the  people.  In  particular,  I  laid 
my  whole  scheme  before  Legrand  (then  one  of  the  directors), 
who  not  only  took  a  warm  interest  in  it,  but  agreed  with  me 
that  the  Republic  stood  in  urgent  need  of  a  reform  of  public 
education.  He  also  agreed  with  me  that  much  might  be  done 
for  the  regeneration  of  the  people  by  giving  a  certain  number 
of  the  poorest  children  an  education  which  should  be  complete, 
but  which,  far  from  lifting  them  out  of  their  proper  sphere, 
would  but  attach  them  the  more  strongly  to  it. 

"  I  limited  my  desires  to  this  one  point,  Legrand  helping  me 
in  every  possible  way.  He  even  thought  my  views  so  impor- 
tant that  he  once  said  to  me  :  'I  shall  not  willingly  give  up 
my  present  post  till  you  have  begun  your  work.' 

"  As  I  have  explained  my  plan  for  the  public  education  of  the 

nr  in  the  third  and  fourth  parts  of  Leonard  and  Gertrude, 
teed  not  repeat  it  here.  I  submitted  it  to  the  director 
Stapfer,  with  all  the  enthusiasm  of  a  man  who  felt  that  his 
hopes  were  about  to  be  realized,  and  he  encouraged  me  with 
an  earnestness  which  showed  how  thoroughly  he  understood 
the  needs  of  popular  education.  It  was  the  same  with  the 
minister  Rengger. 


150          PESTALOZZI:    HIS  LIFE  AND    WORK. 

"  It  was  my  intention  to  try  to  find  near  Zurich  or  in 
Aargau  a  place  where  I  should  be  able  to  join  industry  and 
agriculture  to  the  other  means  of  instruction,  and  so  give  my 
establishment  all  the  development  necessary  to  its  complete 
success.  But  the  Unterwalden  disaster  (September,  1798)  left 
me  no  further  choice  in  the  matter.  The  Government  felt  the 
urgent  need  of  sending  help  to  this  unfortunate  district,  and 
begged  me  for  this  once  to  make  an  attempt  to  put  my  plans 
into  execution  in  a  place  where  almost  everything  that  could 
have  made  it  a  success  was  wanting. 

"  I  went  there  gladly.  I  felt  that  the  innocence  of  the 
people  would  make  up  for  what  was  wanting,  and  that  their 
distress  would,  at  any  rate,  make  them  grateful. 

"  My  eagerness  to  realize  at  last  the  great  dream  of  my  life 
would  have  led  me  to  work  on  the  very  highest  peaks  of  the 
Alps,  and,  so  to  speak,  without  fire  or  water. 

"  For  a  house,  the  Government  made  over  to  me  the  new 
part  of  the  Ursuline  convent  at  Stanz,  but  when  I  arrived  it 
was  still  uncompleted,  and  not  in  any  way  fitted  to  receive 
a  large  number  of  children.  Before  anything  else  could  be 
done,  then,  the  house  itself  had  to  be  got  ready.  The  Govern- 
ment gave  the  necessary  orders,  and  Rengger  pushed  on  the 
work  with  much  zeal  and  useful  activity.  I  was  never  indeed 
allowed  to  want  for  money. 

"  In  spite,  however,  of  the  admirable  support  I  received, 
all  this  preparation  took  time,  and  time  was  precisely  what 
we  could  least  afford,  since  it  was  of  the  highest  importance 
that  a  number  of  children,  whom  the  war  had  left  homeless 
and  destitute,  should  be  received  at  once. 

"  I  was  still  without  everything  but  money  when  the  chil- 
dren arrived ;  neither  kitchen,  rooms,  nor  beds  were  ready 
to  receive  them.  At  first  this  was  a  source  of  inconceivable 
confusion.  For  the  first  few  weeks  I  was  shut  up  in  a  very 
small  room  ;  the  weather  was  bad,  and  the  alterations,  which 
made  a  great  dust  and  filled  the  corridors  with  rubbish,  ren- 
dered the  air  very  unhealthy. 

"  The  want  of  beds  compelled  me  at  first  to  send  some  of 
the  poor  children  home  at  night ;  these  children  generally 
came  back  the  next  day  covered  with  vermin.  Most  of  them 
on  their  arrival  were  very  degenerated  specimens  of  humanity. 
Many  of  them  had  a  sort  of  chronic  skin-disease,  which  a  Imost 
prevented  their  walking,  or  sores  on  their  heads,  or  rags  full 


PESTALOZZI  AT  STANZ.  151 

of  vermin ;  many  were  almost  skeletons,  with  haggard,  care- 
worn faces,  and  shrinking  looks  ;  some  brazen,  accustomed  to 
begging,  hypocrisy,  and  all  sorts  of  deceit ;  others  broken  by 
misfortune,  patient,  suspicious,  timid,  and  entirely  devoid  of 
affection.  There  were  also  some  spoilt  children  amongst  them 
who  had  known  the  sweets  of  comfort,  and  were  therefore  full 
of  pretensions.  These  kept  to  themselves,  affected  to  despise 
the  little  beggars  their  comrades,  and  to  suffer  from  this 
equality,  and  seemed  to  find  it  impossible  to  adapt  themselves 
to  the  ways  of  the  house,  which  differed  too  much  from  their 
old  habits.  But  what  was  common  to  them  all  was  a  per- 
sistent idleness,  resulting  from  their  want  of  physical  and 
mental  activity.  Out  of  every  ten  children  there  was  hardly 
one  who  knew  his  ABC;  as  for  any  other  knowledge,  it  was, 
of  course,  out  of  the  question. 

"  This  complete  ign6rance  was  what  troubled  me  least,  for 
I  trusted  in  the  natural  powers  that  God  bestows  on  even  the 
poorest  and  most  neglected  children.  I  had  observed  for  a 
long  time  that  behind  their  coarseness,  shyness,  and  apparent 
incapacity,  are  hidden  the  finest  faculties,  the  most  precious 
powers ;  and  now ,  even  amongst  these  poor  creatures  by  whom 
I  was  surrounded  at  Stanz,  marked  natural  abilities  soon 
began  to  show  themselves.  I  knew  how  useful  the  common 
needs  of  life  are  in  teaching  men  the  relations  of  things,  in 
bringing  out  their  natural  intelligence,  in  forming  their  judg- 
ment, and  in  arousing  faculties  which,  buried,  as  it  were, 
beneath  the  coarser  elements  of  their  nature,  cannot  become 
active  and  useful  till  they  are  set  free.  It  was  my  object  then 
to  arouse  these  faculties,  and  bring  them  to  bear  on  the  pure 
and  simple  circumstances  of  domestic  life,  for  I  was  convinced 
that  in  this  way  I  should  be  able  to  form  the  hearts  and  minds 
of  children  almost  as  I  wished. 

"  Now  that  I  had  an  opportunity  of  carrying  out  this  object, 
I  felt  sure  that  my  affection  would  change  the  nature  of  my 
children  as  quickly  as  the  sun  changes  the  frozen  earth  in 
spring ;  nor  was  I  wrong,  for  before  the  snow  of  our  moun- 
tains had  melted  the  children  were  no  longer  the  same. 

"  But  I  must  not  anticipate.  Just  as  in  the  evening  I  often 
mark  the  quick  growth  of  the  gourd  by  the  side  of  the  house, 
so  I  want  you  to  mark  the  growth  of  my  plant ;  and,  my 
friend,  I  will  not  hide  from  you  the  worm  which  sometimes 
eats  into  its  leaves,  sometimes  even  into  its  heart. 


152          PESTALOZZI:   HIS  LIFE  AND    WORK. 

"  I  opened  the  establishment  with  no  other  helper  but  a 
woman-servant.  I  had  not  only  to  teach  the  children,  but  to 
look  after  their  physical  needs.  I  preferred  being  alone,  and, 
indeed,  it  was  the  only  way  to  reach  my  end.  No  one  in  the 
world  would  have  cared  to  fall  in  with  my  views  for  the 
education  of  children,  and  at  that  time  I  knew  scarcely  any  one 
capable  even  of  understanding  them.  The  better  the  education 
of  the  men  who  might  have  helped  me,  the  less  their  power 
of  understanding  me  and  of  confining  themselves,  even  in 
theory,  to  the  simple  beginnings  to  which  I  sought  to  return. 
All  their  views  as  to  the  organization  and  needs  of  the  enter- 
prise were  entirely  different  from  mine.  What  they  especially 
disagreed  with  was  the  idea  that  such  an  undertaking  could 
be  carried  out  without  the  help  of  any  artificial  means,  but 
simply  by  the  influence  exercised  on  the  children  by  Nature, 
and  by  the  activity  to  which  they  were  aroused  by  the  needs 
of  their  daily  life. 

"  And  yet  it  was  precisely  upon  this  idea  that  I  based  my 
chief  hope  of  success  ;  it  was,  as  it  were,  a  basis  for  innumer- 
able other  points  of  view. 

"  Experienced  teachers,  then,  could  not  help  me ;  still  less 
boorish,  ignorant  men.  I  had  nothing  to  put  into  the  hands 
of  assistants  to  guide  them,  nor  any  results  or  apparatus  by 
which  I  could  make  my  ideas  clearer  to  them. 

"  Thus,  whether  1  would  or  no,  I  had  first  to  make  my 
experiment  alone,  and  collect  facts  to  illustrate  the  essential 
features  of  my  system  before  I  could  venture  to  look  for  out- 
side help.  Indeed,  in  my  then  position,  nobody  could  help  me. 
I  knew  that  I  must  help  myself  and  shaped  my  plans  accord- 
ingly. 

"  I  wanted  to  prove  by  my  experiment  that  if  public  educa- 
tion is  to  have  any  real  value,  it  must  imitate  the  methods 
which  make  the  merit  of  domestic  education  ;  for  it  is  my 
opinion  that  if  public  education  does  not  take  into  considora- 
tion  the  circumstances  of  family  life,  and  everything  else  that 
bears  on  a  man's  general  education,  it  can  only  lead  to  an 
artificial  and  methodical  dwarfing  of  humanity. 

"  In  any  good  education,  the  mother  must  be  able  to  judge 
daily,  nay  hourly,  from  the  child's  eyes,  lips,  and  face,  of  the 
slightest  change  in  his  soul.  The  power  of  the  educator,  too, 
must  be  that  of  a  father,  quickened  by  the  general  circum* 
stances  of  domestic  life. 


PESTALOZZ1  AT   STANZ.  153 

"Such  was  the  foundation  upon  which  I  built.  I  deter- 
mined that  there  should  not  be  a  minute  in  the  day  when  my 
children  should  not  be  aware  from  my  face  and  my  lips  that 
my  heart  was  theirs,  that  their  happiness  was  my  happiness, 
and  their  pleasures  my  pleasures. 

"  Man  readily  accepts  what  is  good,  and  the  child  readily 
listens  to  it ;  but  it  is  not  for  you  that  he  wants  it,  master  and 
educator,  but  for  himself.  The  good  to  which  you  would  lead 
him  must  not  depend  on  your  capricious  humour  or  passion ; 
it  must  be  a  good  which  is  good  in  itself  and  by  the  nature 
of  things,  and  which  the  child  can  recognize  as  good.  He 
must  feel  the  necessity  of  your  will  in  things  which  concern 
his  comfort  before  he  can  be  expected  to  obey  it. 

"  Whenever  he  does  anything  gladly,  anything  that  brings 
him  honour,  anything  that  helps  to  realize  any  of  his  great 
hopes,  or  stimulates  his  powers,  and  enables  him  to  say  with 
truth,  I  can,  then  he  is  exercising  his  will. 

"  The  will,  however,  cannot  be  stimulated  by  mere  words  ; 
its  action  must  depend  upon  those  feelings  and  powers  which 
are  the  result  of  general  culture.  Words  alone  cannot  give 
us  a  knowledge  of  things ;  they  are  only  useful  for  giving 
expression  to  what  we  have  in  our  mind. 

"  The  first  thing  to  be  done  was  to  win  the  confidence  and 
affection  of  the  children.  I  was  sure  that  if  I  succeeded  in 
doing  that,  all  the  rest  would  follow  of  itself.  Think  for  a 
moment  of  the  prejudices  of  the  people,  and  even  of  the  chil- 
dren, and  you  will  understand  the  difficulties  with  which  I 
had  to  contend. 

"  The  unfortunate  country  had  suffered  all  the  horrors  of 
war.  Most  of  the  inhabitants  detested  the  new  constitution, 
and  were  not  only  exasperated  with  the  Government,  but 
suspicious  of  its  offered  help.  Opposed  by  the  natural  melan- 
choly of  their  character  to  anything  new  coming  from  outside, 
they  held  fast,  with  bitter  and  defiant  obstinacy,  to  everything 
connected  with  their  former  condition,  wretched  as  it  was  in 
many  respects.  To  these  people  I  was  simply  an  agent  of  the 
new  order  of  things.  They  looked  on  me  as  a  mere  instru- 
ment, working  not  for  them,  but  for  the  men  who  were  the 
cause  of  their  misfortunes,  and  whose  opinions,  views,  and 
plans  were  entirely  opposed  to  their  own.  This  political  dis- 
trust was  strengthened  by  a  no  less  deep  religious  distrust. 
I  was  a  heretic,  and  so  all  my  efforts  to  do  good  could  only 
12 


154        PESTALOZZ1:   HIS  LIFE   AND    WORK. 

imperil  their  children's  souls.  Amongst  them  no  Protestant 
had  ever  held  the  smallest  public  office ;  what  must  they 
have  felt,  then,  on  seeing  one  made  a  teacher  of  children  ?  To 
make  matters  worse,  religious  and  political  passion  in  Stanz 
was  just  then  excited  to  an  unusually  high  degree. 

"Think,  my  friend,  of  this  temper  of  the  veople,  of  my 
weakness,  of  my  poor  appearance,  of  the  ill-will  to  which  I 
was  almost  publicly  exposed,  and  then  judge  how  much  I  had 
to  endure  for  the  sake  of  carrying  on  my  work. 

"  And  yet,  however  painful  this  want  of  help  and  support 
was  to  me,  it  was  favourable  to  the  success  of  my  undertaking, 
for  it  compelled  me  to  be  always  everything  for  my  children. 
I  was  alone  with  them  from  morning  till  night.  It  was  my 
hand  that  supplied  all  their  wants,  both  of  body  and  soul. 
All  needful  help,  consolation,  and  instruction  they  received 
direct  from  me.  Their  hands  were  in  mine,  my  eyes  were 
fixed  on  theirs. 

"  We  wept  and  smiled  together.  They  forgot  the  world 
and  Stanz ;  they  only  knew  that  they  were  with  me  and  I 
with  them.  We  shared  our  food  and  drink.  I  had  neither 
family,  friends,  nor  servants  ;  nothing  but  them.  I  was  with 
them  in  sickness,  and  in  health,  and  when  they  slept.  I  was 
the  last  to  go  to  bed,  and  the  first  to  get  up.  In  the  bedroom 
I  prayed  with  them,  and,  at  their  own  request,  taught  them 
till  they  fell  asleep.  Their  clothes  and  bodies  were  intolerably 
filthy,  but  I  looked  after  both  myself,  and  was  thus  constantly 
exposed  to  the  risk  of  contagion. 

"  This  is  how  it  was  that  these  children  gradually  became  so 
attached  to  me,  some  indeed  so  deeply  that  they  contradicted 
their  parents  and  friends  when  they  heard  evil  things  said 
about  me.  They  felt  that  I  was  being  treated  unfairly,  and 
loved  me,  I  think,  the  more  for  it.  But  of  what  avail  is  it  for 
the  young  nestlings  to  love  their  mother  when  the  bird  of  prey 
that  is  bent  on  destroying  them  is  constantly  hovering  near  ? 

"  However,  the  first  results  of  these  principles  and  of  this 
line  of  action  were  not  always  satisfactory,  nor,  indeed,  could 
they  be  so.  The  children  did  not  always  understand  my  love. 
Accustomed  to  idleness,  unbounded  liberty,  and  the  fortuitous 
and  lawless  pleasures  of  an  almost  wild  life,  they  had  come 
to  the  convent  in  the  expectation  of  being  well  fed,  and  of 
having  nothing  to  do.  Some  of  them  soon  discovered  that 
they  had  been  there  long  enough,  and  wanted  to  go  away 


PESTALOZZI  AT  STANZ.  155 

again ;  they  talked  of  the  school  fever  that  attacks  children 
when  they  are  kept  employed  all  day  long.  This  dissatis- 
faction, which  showed  itself  during  the  first  months,  resulted 
principally  from  the  fact  that  many  of  them  were  ill,  the  con- 
sequence either  of  the  sudden  change  of  diet  and  habits,  or 
of  the  severity  of  the  weather  and  the  dampness  of  the  build- 
ing in  which  we  lived.  We  all  coughed  a  great  deal,  and 
several  children  were  seized  with  a  peculiar  sort  of  fever. 

"  This  fever,  which  always  began  with  sickness,  was  very 
general  in  the  district.  Cases  of  sickness,  however,  not  fol- 
lowed by  fever,  were  not  at  all  rare,  and  were  an  almost 
natural  consequence  of  the  change  of  food.  Many  people 
attributed  the  fever  to  bad  food,  but  the  facts  soon  showed 
them  to  be  wrong,  for  not  a  single  child  succumbed. 

"  On  the  return  of  spring  it  was  evident  to  everybody  that 
the  children  were  all  doing  well,  growing  rapidly,  and  gaining 
colour.  Certain  magistrates  and  ecclesiastics,  who  saw  them 
some  time  afterwards,  stated  that  they  had  improved  almost 
beyond  recognition. 

"  A  few  of  the  children,  however,  continued  in  ill-health  for 
some  time,  and  the  influence  of  the  parents  was  not  favour- 
able to  their  recovery.  '  Poor  child,  how  ill  you  look  !  I  am 
sure  I  could  look  after  you  at  home  as  well  as  you  are  looked 
after  here.  Come  away  with  me.'  That  was  the  sort  of  thing 
said  by  women  who  were  in  the  habit  of  begging  from  door 
to  door.  On  Sundays,  especially,  numbers  of  parents  used  to 
come  and  openly  pity  their  children  till  they  made  them  cry, 
and  then  urge  them  to  go  away.  I  lost  a  great  many  in  this 
way  ;  and  though  their  places  were  soon  filled  by  others,  you 
can  understand  how  bad  these  constant  changes  were  for  an 
establishment  that  was  only  just  beginning. 

"  Many  parents  thought  they  were  doing  me  a  personal 
favour  by  leaving  the  children  with  me,  and  even  asked  the 
Capuchins  whether  it  was  because  I  had  no  other  means  of 
subsistence  that  I  was  so  anxious  to  have  pupils.  It  was  the 
general  opinion  amongst  these  people  that  poverty  alone  could 
have  induced  me  to  give  myself  so  much  trouble,  an  opinion 
which  came  out  in  their  behaviour  towards  me. 

"  Some  asked  me  for  money  to  make  up  for  what  they  had 
lost  by  their  children  being  no  longer  able  to  beg  ;  others,  hat 
on  head,  informed  me  that  they  did  not  mind  trying  a  few 
days  longer ;  others,  again,  laid  down  their  own  conditions. 


156        PES7ALOZZ1:    HIS  LIFE  AND    WORK. 

"  Months  passed  in  this  way  before  I  had  the  satisfaction 
of  having  my  hand  grasped  by  a  single  grateful  parent.  But 
the  children  were  won  over  much  sooner.  They  even  wept 
sometimes  when  their  parents  met  me  or  left  me  without  a 
word  of  salutation.  Several  oi  them  were  perfectly  happy, 
and  used  to  say  to  their  mothers :  '  I  am  more  comfortable 
here  than  at  home.'  At  home,  indeed,  as  they  readily  told 
me  when  we  talked  alone,  they  had  been  ill-used  and  beaten, 
and  had  often  had  neither  bread  to  eat  nor  bed  to  lie  down 
upon.  And  yet  these  same  children  would  sometimes  go  off 
with  their  mothers  the  very  next  morning. 

"  A  good  many  others,  however,  soon  saw  that  by  staying 
with  me  they  might  both  learn  something  and  become  some- 
thing, and  these  never  failed  in  their  zeal  and  attachment. 
Before  very  long  their  conduct  was  imitated  by  others,  though 
not  always  from  the  same  considerations. 

"  Those  who  ran  away  were  the  worst  in  character  and  the 
least  capable.  But  they  were  not  incited  to  go  till  they  were 
free  of  their  vermin  and  their  rags.  Several  were  sent  to 
me  with  no  other  purpose  than  that  of  being  taken  away  again 
as  soon  as  they  were  clean  and  well  clothed. 

"  But  after  a  time  their  better  judgment  overcame  the  defiant 
hostility  with  which  they  arrived.  In  1799  I  had  nearly 
eighty  children.  Most  of  them  were  bright  and  intelligent, 
some  even  remarkably  so. 

"  JFor  most  of  them  study  was  something  entirely  new.  As 
soon  as  they  found  that  they  could  learn,  their  zeal  was 
indefatigable,  and  in  a  few  weeks  children  who  had  never 
before  opened  a  book,  and  could  hardly  repeat  a  Pater  Nosier 
or  an  Ave,  would  study  the  whole  day  long  with  the  keenest 
interest.  Even  after  supper,  when  I  used  to  say  to  them, 
'  Children,  will  you  go  to  .bed,  or  learn  something  ? '  they 
would  generally  answer,  especially  in  the  first  month  or  two, 
'  Learn  something.'  It  is  true  that  afterwards,  when  they 
had  to  get  up  very  early,  it  was  not  quite  the  same. 

"  But  this  first  eagerness  did  much  towards  starting  the 
establishment  on  the  right  lines,  and  making  the  studies  the 
success  they  ultimately  were,  a  success,  indeed,  which  far 
surpassed  my  expectations.  And  yet  the  difficulties  in  the 
•way  of  introducing  a  well-ordered  system  of  studies  were  at 
that  time  almost  insurmountable. 

"  Neither  my  trust  nor  my  zeal  had  as  yet  been  able  to 


PESTALOZZ1  AT   STA\Z.  157 

overcome  either  the  intractability  of  individuals  or  the  want 
of  coherence  in  the  whole  experiment.  The  general  order  of 
the  establishment,  I  felt,  must  be  based  upon  order  of  a  higher 
character.  As  this  higher  order  did  not  yet  exist,  I  had  to 
attempt  to  create  it ;  for  without  this  foundation  I  could  not 
hope  to  organize  properly  either  the  teaching  or  the  general 
management  of  the  place,  nor  should  I  have  wished  to  do  so. 
I  wanted  everything  to  result  not  from  a  preconceived  plan, 
but  from  my  relations  with  the  children.  The  high  principles 
and  educating  forces  I  was  seeking,  I  looked  for  from  the 
harmonious  common  life  of  my  children,  from  their  attention, 
activity,  and  needs.  It  was  not,  then,  from  any  external 
organization  that  I  looked  for  the  regeneration  of  which  they 
stood  so  much  in  need.  If  I  had  employed  constraint,  regula- 
tions and  lectures,  I  should,  instead  of  winning  and  ennobling 
my  children's  hearts,  have  repelled  them  and  made  them 
bitter,  and  thus  been  farther  than  ever  from  my  aim.  First  of 
all,  I  had  to  arouse  in  them  pure,  moral,  and  noble  feelings,  so 
that  afterwards,  in  external  things,  I  might  be  sure  of  their 
ready  attention,  activity,  and  obedience.  I  had,  in  short,  to 
follow  the  high  precept  of  Jesus  Christ,  '  Cleanse  first  that 
which  is  within,  that  the  outside  may  be  clean  also ' ;  and  if 
ever  the  truth  of  this  precept  was  made  manifest,  it  was  made 
manifest  then. 

"  My  one  aim  was  to  make  their  new  life  in  common,  and 
their  new  powers,  awaken  a  feeling  of  brotherhood  amongst 
the  children,  and  make  them  affectionate,  just,  and  considerate. 

"  I  reached  this  end  without  much  difficulty.  Amongst 
these  seventy  wild  beggar-children  there  soon  existed  such 
peace,  friendship,  and  cordial  relations  as  are  rare  even 
between  actual  brothers  and  sisters. 

"  The  principle  to  which  I  endeavoured  to  conform  all  my 
conduct  was  as  follows:  Endeavour,  first,  to  broaden  your 
children's  sympathies,  and,  by  satisfying  their  daily  needs,  to 
bring  love  and  kindness  into  such  unceasing  contact  with  their 
impressions  and  their  activity,  that  these  sentiments  may  be 
engrafted  in  their  hearts;  then  try  to  give  them  such  judgment 
and  tact  as  will  enable  them  to  make  a  wise,  sure,  and  abundant 
use  of  these  virtues  in  the  circle  which  surrounds  them.  In 
the  last  place,  do  not  hesitate  to  touch  on  the  difficult  questions 
of  good  and  evil,  and  the  words  connected  with  them.  And 
you  must  do  this  especially  in  connection  with  the  ordinary 


158          PESTALOZZI:    HIS   LIFE   AND    WORK. 

events  of  every  day,  upon  which  your  whole  teaching  in 
these  matters  must  be  founded,  so  that  the  children  may  be 
reminded  of  their  own  feelings,  and  supplied,  as  it  were,  with 
solid  facts  iipon  which  to  base  their  conception  of  *the  beauty 
and  justice  of  the  moral  life.  Even  though  you  should  have 
to  spend  whole  nights  in  trying  to  express  in  two  words  what 
others  say  in  twenty,  never  regret  the  loss  of  sleep. 

"I  gave  my  children  very  few  explanations;  I  taught  them 
neither  morality  nor  religion.  But  sometimes,  when  they 
were  perfectly  quiet,  I  used  to  say  to  them,  '  Do  you  not  think 
that  you  are  better  and  more  reasonable  when  you  are  like 
this  than  when  you  are  making  a  noise  ? '  When  they  clung 
round  my  neck  and  called  me  their  father,  I  used  to  say,  '  My 
children,  would  it  be  right  to  deceive  your  father  ?  After 
kissing  me  like  this,  would  you  like  to  do  anything  behind  my 
back  to  vex  me  ? '  When  our  talk  turned  on  the  misery  of 
the  country,  and  they  were  feeling  glad  at  the  thought  of  their 
own  happier  lot,  I  would  say,  '  How  good  God  is  to  have  given 
man  a  compassionate  heart ! '  Sometimes,  too,  I  asked  them  if 
they  did  not  see  a  great  difference  between  a  Government  that 
cares  for  the  poor  and  teaches  them  to  earn  a  livelihood,  and 
one  that  leaves  them  to  their  idleness  and  vice,  with  beggary 
and  the  workhouse  for  sole  resource. 

"  Often  I  drew  them  a  picture  of  the  happiness  of  a  simple, 
peaceful  household,  that  by  economy  and  hard  work  has  pro- 
vided for  all  its  wants,  and  put  itself  in  a  position  to  give 
advice  to  the  ignorant,  and  help  to  the  unfortunate.  When 
they  pressed  round  me,  I  used  to  ask  the  best  of  them,  even 
during  the  first  few  months,  whether  they  would  not  like  to 
live  like  me,  and  have  a  number  of  unfortunate  children  about 
them  to  take  care  of  and  turn  into  useful  men.  The  depth  of 
their  feelings  would  even  bring  tears  to  their  eyes,  as  they 
answered,  '  Ah,  if  I  could  only  do  that ! ' 

"  What  encouraged  them  most  was  the  thought  of  not 
nlways  remaining  poor,  but  of  some  day  taking  their  place 
again  amongst  their  fellows,  with  knowledge  and  talents  that 
should  make  them  useful,  and  win  them  the  esteem  of  othei 
men.  They  felt  that,  owing  to  my  care,  they  made  more 
progress  in  this  respect  than  other  children ;  they  perfectly 
understood  that  all  they  did  was  but  a  preparation  for  their 
future  activity,  and  they  looked  forward  to  happiness  as  the 
certain  result  of  their  perseverance.  That  is  why  steady 


PESTALOZZI  AT  STANZ.  159 

application  soon  became  easy  to  them,  its  object  being  in 
perfect  accordance  with  their  wishes  and  their  hopes.  Virtue, 
my  friend,  is  developed  by  this  agreement,  just  as  the  young 
plant  thrives  when  the  soil  suits  its  nature,  and  supplies  the 
needs  of  its  tender  shoots. 

"I  witnessed  the  growth  of  an  inward  strength  in  my 
children,  which,  in  its  general  development,  far  surpassed 
my  expectations,  and  in  its  particular  manifestations  not  only 
often  surprised  me,  but  touched  me  deeply. 

"  When  the  neighbouring  town  of  Altdorf  was  burnt  down, 
I  gathered  the  children  round  me,  and  said,  '  Altdorf  has 
been  burnt  down ;  perhaps,  at  this  very  moment,  there  are  a 
hundred  children  there  without  home,  food,  or  clothes ;  will 
you  not  ask  our  good  Government  to  let  twenty  of  them  come 
and  live  with  us  ?'  I  still  seem  to  see  the  emotion  with 
which  they  answered,  '  Oh,  yes,  yes ! '  '  But,  my  children,'  I 
said,  'think  well  of  what  you  are  asking!  Even  now  we 
have  scarcely  money  enough,  and  it  is  not  at  all  certain  that 
if  these  poor  children  came  to  us,  the  Government  would  give 
us  any  more  than  they  do  at  present,  so  that  you  might  have 
to  work  harder,  and  share  your  clothes  with  these  children,  and 
sometimes  perhaps  go  without  food.  Do  not  say,  then,  that 
you  would  like  them  to  come  unless  you  are  quite  prepared 
for  all  these  consequences.'  After  having  spoken  to  them  in 
this  way  as  seriously  as  I  could,  I  made  them  repeat  all  I  had 
said,  to  be  quite  sure  that  they  had  thoroughly  understood 
what  the  consequences  of  their  request  would  be.  But  they 
were  not  in  the  least  shaken  in  their  decision,  and  all  repeated, 
'  Yes,  yes,  we  are  quite  ready  to  work  harder,  eat  less,  and 
share  our  clothes,  for  we  want  them  to  come.' 

"  Some  refugees  from  the  Grisons  having  given  me  a  few 
crowns  for  my  poor  children,  I  at  once  called  them,  and  said, 
'  These  men  are  obliged  to  leave  their  country ;  they  hardly 
know  where  they  will  find  a  home  to-morrow,  yet,  in  spite  of 
their  trouble,  they  have  given  me  this  for  you.  Come  and 
thank  them.'  The  emotion  of  the  children  at  these  words 
brought  tears  to  the  eyes  of  the  refugees. 

"  It  was  in  this  way  that  I  strove  to  awaken  the  feeling  of 
each  virtue  before  talking  about  it,  for  I  thought  it  unwise  to 
talk  to  children  on  subjects  which  would  compel  them  to  speak 
without  thoroughly  understanding  what  they  were  saying. 

"  I  followed  up  this  awakening  of  the  sentiments  by  exer- 


160          PESTALOZZI:    HIS  LIFE  AND    WORK. 

cises  intended  to  teach  the  children  self-control,  and  interest 
the  best  natures  amongst  them  in  the  practical  questions  of 
every-day  life. 

"  It  will  easily  be  understood  that,  in  this  respect,  it  was 
not  possible  to  organize  any  system  of  discipline  for  tho 
establishment ;  that  could  only  come  slowly,  as  the  general 
work  developed. 

"  Silence,  as  an  aid  to  application,  is  perhaps  the  great 
secret  of  such  an  institution.  I  found  it  very  useful  to  insist 
on  silence  when  I  was  teaching,  and  also  to  pay  particular 
attention  to  the  attitude  of  my  children.  The  result  was 
that  the  moment  I  asked  for  silence,  I  could  teach  in  quite  a 
low  voice.  The  children  repeated  my  words  all  together; 
and  as  there  was  no  other  sound,  I  was  able  to  detect  the 
slightest  mistakes  of  pronunciation.  It  is  true  that  this  was 
not  always  so.  Sometimes,  whilst  they  repeated  sentences 
after  me,  I  would  ask  them  half  in  fun  to  keep  their  eyes 
fixed  on  their  middle  fingers.  It  is  hardly  credible  how  useful 
simple  things  of  this  sort  sometimes  are  as  means  to  the  very 
highest  ends. 

"  One  young  girl,  for  instance,  who  had  been  little  better 
than  a  savage,  by  keeping  her  head  and  body  upright,  and 
not  looking  about,  made  more  progress  in  her  moral  education 
than  any  one  would  have  believed  possible. 

"  These  experiences  have  shown  me  that  the  mere  habit  of 
carrying  oneself  well  does  much  more  for  the  education  of 
the  moral  sentiments  than  any  amount  of  teaching  and  lec- 
tures in  which  this  simple  fact  is  ignored. 

"  Thanks  to  the  application  of  these  principles,  my  children 
soon  became  more  open,  more  contented  and  more  susceptible 
to  every  good  and  noble  influence  than  any  one  could  possibly 
have  foreseen  when  they  first  came  to  me,  so  utterly  devoid 
were  they  of  ideas,  good  feelings,  and  moral  principles. 
As  a  matter  of  fact,  this  lack  of  previous  instruction  was 
not  a  serious  obstacle  to  me ;  indeed,  it  hardly  troubled 
me  at  all.  I  am  inclined  even  to  say  that,  in  the  simple 
method  I  was  following,  it  was  often  an  advantage,  for  I 
had  incomparably  less  trouble  to  develop  those  children 
whose  minds  were  still  blank,  than  those  who  had  already 
acquired  a  few  more  or  less  correct  ideas.  The  former,  too, 
were  much  more  open  than  the  latter  to  the  influence  of  all 
pure  and  simple  sentiments. 


PESTALOZZI  AT  STANZ.  161 

"  But  when  the  children  were  obdurate  and  churlish,  then 
I  was  severe,  and  made  use  of  corporal  punishment. 

"  My  dear  friend,  the  pedagogical  principle  which  says  that 
we  must  win  the  hearts  and  minds  of  our  children  by  words 
alone,  without  having  recourse  to  corporal  punishment,  is 
certainly  good,  and  applicable  under  favourable  conditions  and 
circumstances ;  but  with  children  of  such  widely  different 
ages  as  mine,  children  for  the  most  part  beggars,  and  all  full 
of  deeply-rooted  faults,  a  certain  amount  of  corporal  punish- 
ment was  inevitable,  especially  as  I  was  anxious  to  arrive 
surely,  speedily,  and  by  the  simplest  means,  at  gaining  an 
influence  over  them  all,  for  the  sake  of  putting  them  all  in 
the  right  road.  I  was  compelled  to  punish  them,  but  it  would 
be  a  mistake  to  suppose  that  I  thereby,  in  any  way,  lost  the 
confidence  of  my  pupils. 

"  It  is  not  the  rare  and  isolated  actions  that  form  the 
opinions  and  feelings  of  children,  but  the  impressions  of  every 
day  and  every  hour.  From  such  impressions  they  judge 
whether  we  are  kindly  disposed  towards  them  or  not,  and 
this  settles  their  general  attitude  towards  us.  Their  judg- 
ment of  isolated  actions  depends  upon  this  general  attitude. 

"  This  is  how  it  is  that  punishments  inflicted  by  parents 
rarely  make  a  bad  impression.  But  it  is  quite  different  with 
schoolmasters  and  teachers  who  are  not  with  their  children 
night  and  day,  and  have  none  of  those  relations  with  them 
which  result  from  life  in  common. 

"  My  punishments  never  produced  obstinacy  ;  the  children 
I  had  beaten  were  quite  satisfied  if  a  moment  afterwards  I 
gave  them  my  hand  and  kissed  them,  and  I  could  read  in 
their  eyes  that  the  final  effect  of  my  blows  was  really  joy. 
The  following  is  a  striking  instance  of  the  effect  this  sort  of 
punishment  sometimes  had.  One  day  one  of  the  children  I 
liked  best,  taking  advantage  of  my  affection,  unjustly  threat- 
ened one  of  his  companions.  I  was  very  indignant,  and  my 
hand  did  not  spare  him.  He  seemed  at  first  almost  broken- 
hearted, and  cried  bitterly  for  at  least  a  quarter  of  an  hour. 
When  I  had  gone  out,  however,  he  got  up,  and  going  to  the 
boy  he  had  ill-treated,  begged  his  pardon,  and  thanked  him 
for  having  spoken  about  his  bad  conduct.  My  friend,  this 
was  no  comedy ;  the  child  had  never  seen  anything  like  it 
before. 

"It  was  impossible  that  this  sort  of  treatment  should  pro- 


162          PESTALOZZI;   HIS  LIFE  AND    WORK. 

duce  a  bad  impression  on  my  children,  because  all  day  long  I 
was  giving  them  proofs  of  my  affection  and  devotion.  They 
could  not  misread  my  heart,  and  so  they  did  not  misjudge  my 
actions.  It  was  not  the  same  with  the  parents,  friends, 
strangers,  and  teachers  who  visited  us,  but  that  was  natural. 
But  I  cared  nothing  for  the  opinion  of  the  whole  world,  pro- 
vided my  children  understood  me. 

•'  I  always  did  my  best,  therefore,  to  make  them  clearly 
understand  the  motives  of  my  actions  in  all  matters  likely  to 
excite  their  attention  and  interest.  This,  my  friend,  brings 
me  to  the  consideration  of  the  moral  means  to  be  employed 
in  a  truly  domestic  education. 

"  Elementary  moral  education,  considered  as  a  whole, 
includes  three  distinct  parts  :  the  children's  moral  sense  must 
first  be  aroused  by  their  feelings  being  made  active  and  pure ; 
then  they  must  be  exercised  in  self-control,  and  taught  to  take 
interest  in  whatever  is  just  and  good  ;  finally,  they  must  be 
brought  to  form  for  themselves,  by  reflection  and  comparison, 
a  just  notion  of  the  moral  rights  and  duties  which  are  thbirs 
by  reason  cf  their  position  and  surroundings. 

"  So  far,  I  have  pointed  out  some  of  the  means  I  employed 
to  reach  the  first  two  of  these  ends.  They  were  just  as  simple 
for  the  third  ;  for  I  still  made  use  of  the  impressions  and 
experiences  of  their  daily  life  to  give  my  children  a  true  and 
exact  idea  of  right  and  duty.  When,  for  instance,  they  made 
a  noise,  I  appealed  to  their  own  judgment,  and  asked  them  if 
it  was  possible  to  learn  under  such  conditions.  I  shall  never 
forget  how  strong  and  true  I  generally  found  their  sense  of 
justice  and  reason,  and  how  this  sense  increased  and,  as  it 
were,  established  their  good  will. 

"I  appealed  to  them  in  all  matters  that  concerned  the 
establishment.  It  was  generally  in  the  quiet  evening  hours 
that  I  appealed  to  their  free  judgment.  When,  for  instance, 
it  was  reported  in  the  village  that  they  had  not  enough  to 
oat,  I  said  to  them,  '  Tell  me,  my  children,  if  you  are  not 
better  fed  than  you  were  at  home  ?  Think,  and  tell  me  your- 
selves, whether  it  would  be  well  to  keep  you  here  in  such  a 
way  as  would  make  it  impossible  for  you  afterwards,  in  spite 
of  all  your  application  and  hard  work,  to  procure  what  you 
had  become  accustomed  to.  Do  you  lack  anything  that  is 
really  necessary  ?  Do  you  think  that  I  could  reasonably  and 
justly  do  more  for  you  ?  Would  you  have  me  spend  all  the 


PESTALOZZ1  AT  STANZ,  163 

money  that  is  entrusted  to  me  on  thirty  or  forty  children 
instead  of  on  eighty  as  at  present  ?  Would  that  be  just  ?  ' 

"In  the  same  way,  when  I  heard  that  it  was  reported  that  I 
punished  them  too  severely,  I  said  to  them :  '  You  know  how 
I  love  you,  my  children ;  but  tell  me,  would  you  like  me  to 
stop  punishing  you  ?  Do  you  think  that  in  any  other  way  I 
can  free  you  from  your  deeply  rooted  bad  habits,  or  make  you 
always  mind  what  I  say  ?  '  You  were  there,  my  friend,  and 
saw  with  your  own  eyes  the  sincere  emotion  with  which  they 
answered,  '  We  do  not  complain  of  your  treatment.  Would 
that  we  never  deserved  punishment ;  but  when  we  do,  we  are 
willing  to  bear  it.' 

"  Many  things  that  make  no  difference  in  a  small  household 
could  not  be  tolerated  where  the  numbers  were  so  great.  I 
tried  to  make  my  children  feel  this,  always  leaving  them  to 
decide  what  could  or  could  not  be  allowed.  It  is  true  that, 
in  my  intercourse  with  them,  I  never  spoke  of  liberty  or 
equality ;  but,  at  the  same  time,  I  encouraged  them  as  far 
as  possible  to  be  free  and  unconstrained  in  my  presence,  with 
the  result  that  every  day  I  marked  more  and  more  that  clear, 
open  look  in  their  eyes  which,  in  my  experience,  is  the  sign 
of  a  really  liberal  education.  I  could  not  bear  the  thought 
of  betraying  the  trust  I  read  in  their  faces,  and  was  always 
seeking  to  encourage  it,  as  well  as  the  free  development  of 
their  individuality,  that  nothing  might  cloud  their  angel  eyes, 
the  mere  sight  of  which  gave  me  such  deep  pleasure.  I  never 
tolerated  frowns  and  gloomy  faces,  but  always  tried  to  call 
back  smiles.  The  consequence  was  that,  even  amongst  them- 
selves, gloomy  looks  were  kept  out  of  sight. 

"  By  reason  of  their  great  number,  I  had  occasion  nearly 
every  day  to  point  out  the  difference  between  good  and  evil, 
justice  and  injustice.  Good  and  evil  are  equally  contagious 
amongst  so  many  children,  so  that,  according  as  the  good  or 
bad  sentiments  spread,  the  establishment  was  likely  to  become 
either  much  better  or  much  worse  than  if  it  had  only  con- 
tained a  smaller  number.  About  this,  too.  I  talked  to  them 
frankly.  I  shall  never  forget  the  impression  that  my  words 
produced  when,  in  speaking  of  a  certain  disturbance  that  had 
taken  place  amongst  them,  I  said,  '  My  children,  it  is  the 
same  with  us  as  with  every  other  household  ;  when  the  chil- 
dren are  numerous,  and  each  gives  way  to  his  bad  habits, 
such  disorder  ensues  that  even  the  weakest  mother  is  obliged 


1 64          PESTALOZZI:  HIS  LIFE  AND    WORK. 

to  be  reasonable,  and  make  them  submit  to  what  is  just  and 
right.  And  that  is  what  I  must  do  now.  If  you  do  not 
willingly  assist  in  the  maintenance  of  order,  our  establish- 
ment cannot  go  on,  you  will  fall  back  into  your  former 
condition,  and  your  misery — now  that  you  have  been  accus- 
toinec  to  a  good  home,  clean  clothes,  and  regular  food — will 
be  greater  than  ever.  In  this  world,  my  children,  necessity 
and  conviction  alone  can  teach  a  man  to  behave ;  when  both 
fail  him,  he  is  hateful.  Think  for  a  moment  what  you  would 
become  if  you  were  safe  from  want  and  cared  nothing  for 
right,  justice,  or  goodness.  At  home  there  was  always  some 
one  who  looked  after  you,  and  poverty  itself  forced  you  to 
many  a  right  action ;  but  with  convictions  and  reason  to  guide 
you,  you  will  rise  far  higher  than  by  following  necessity 
alone.' 

"  I  often  spoke  to  them  in  this  way  without  troubling  in 
the  least  whether  they  each  understood  every  word,  feeling 
quite  sure  that  they  all  caught  the  general  sense  of  what  I 
said. 

"  Lively  pictures  of  the  condition  in  which  they  might  some 
day  find  themselves,  had  also  a  very  great  effect  upon  them. 
I  pointed  out  to  them  the  result  of  each  particular  defect.  I 
said,  for  instance :  '  Do  you  not  know  men  who  are  detested 
for  their  evil  tongue  ?  Would  you,  in  your  old  days,  care  to 
be  thus  held  in  abomination  by  your  neighbours  and  relations, 
perhaps  even  by  your  children  ?  '  In  that  way  I  used  their 
own  experience  to  put  before  them  as  striking  a  picture  as  I 
could  of  the  evil  results  of  our  faults.  Similarly,  I  pointed 
out  the  consequences  of  right  action. 

"  Generally,  however,  I  tried  to  make  clear  to  them  the  very 
different  effects  of  good  and  bad  education.  'Do  you  not 
.know  men  whose  unhappiness  is  solely  the  result  of  their 
want  of  thought  and  application  when  young  ?  Do  you  not 
know  some  who  could  earn  three  or  four  times  as  much  if 
they  could  read  and  write?  Will  you  not  take  advantage 
of  your  time  here,  and  learn  as  much  as  possible,  so  that  you 
may  never  have  to  live  by  begging,  or  be  a  burden  to  your 
children  ? ' 

"  Here  are  a  few  more  thoughts  which  produced  a  great 
impression  on  my  children :  '  Do  you  know  anything  greater 
or  nobler  than  to  give  counsel  to  the  poor,  and  comfort  to  the 
unfortunate  ?  But  if  you  remain  ignorant  and  incapable, 


PESTALOZZI  AT  STANZ.  165 

you  will  be  obliged,  in  spite  of  your  good  heart,  to  let  things 
take  their  course;  whereas,  if  you  acquire  knowledge  and 
power,  you  will  be  able  to  give  good  advice,  and  save  many  a 
man  from  misery.' 

"  I  have  generally  found  that  great,  noble,  and  high 
thoughts  are  indispensable  for  developing  wisdom  and  firm- 
ness of  character. 

"  Such  an  instruction  must  be  complete  in  the  sense  that  it 
must  take  account  of  all  our  aptitudes  and  all  our  circum- 
stances ;  it  must  be  conducted,  too,  in  a  truly  psychological 
spirit,  that  is  to  say,  simply,  lovingly,  energetically,  and 
calmly.  Then,  by  its  very  nature,  it  produces  an  enlightened 
and  delicate  feeling  for  everything  true  and  good,  and  brings 
to  light  a  number  of  accessory  and  dependent  truths,  which 
are  forthwith  accepted  and  assimilated  by  the  human  soul, 
even  in  the  case  of  those  who  could  not  express  these  truths 
in  words.  This  verbal  expression  of  the  truths  which  rule 
our  lives  is  not  so  generally  useful  to  humanity  as  it  is  thought 
to  be  by  men  who  have  been  accustomed  for  centuries  to 
hear  Christian  instruction  conveyed  by  question  and  answer, 
regardless  of  result,  and  who  for  a  generation  past  have  seen 
the  mania  of  our  poor  century  for  empty  speech  more  and 
more  encouraged,  alas!  by  the  very  people  who  pretend  to 
enlighten  it. 

"I  believe  that  the  first  development  of  thought  in  the 
child  is  very  much  disturbed  by  a  wordy  system  of  teaching, 
which  is  not  adapted  either  to  his  faculties  or  the  circum- 
stances of  his  life. 

"According  to  my  experience,  success  depends  upon  whether 
what  is  taught  to  children  commends  itself  to  them  as  true, 
through  being  closely  connected  with  their  own  personal 
observation  and  experience. 

"  Without  this  foundation,  truth  must  seem  to  them  to  bo 
little  better  than  a  plaything,  which  is  beyond  their  compre- 
hension, and  therefore  a  burden.  Truth  and  justice  are 
certainly  more  than  empty  words  to  men,  for  they  are  the 
outcome  of  inward  convictions,  high  views,  noble  aspirations, 
and  sound  judgment,  to  say  nothing  of  the  external  signs  by 
which  their  power  may  be  made  manifest. 

"  And  what  is  not  less  true  is  that  this  sentiment  of  truth 
and  justice,  when  it  has  developed  simply  and  soberly  in  the 
depths  of  a  man's  soul,  is  his  best  safeguard  against  the  chief 


166  PESTALOZZI:  HIS  LIFE  AND   WORK. 

and  most  deadly  consequences  of  prejudice ;  nor  will  it  ever 
allow  error,  ignorance,  or  superstition,  however  bad  they  may 
be  in  themselves,  to  influence  him  as  they  do  and  always 
must  influence  those  who,  without  a  trace  of  love  or  justice 
in  their  hearts,  are  incessantly  prating  of  religion  and  right. 

"These  general  principles  of  human  instruction  are  like 
pieces  of  pure  gold  ;  the  particular  truths  which  depend  upon 
them  are  but  silver  and  copper.  I  cannot  help  comparing  the 
swimmer,  who  loses  himself  in  this  sea,  made  up  of  so  many 
thousand  drops  of  truth,  to  a  merchant  who,  after  having 
amassed  a  fortune,  penny  by  penny,  should  become  so  attached 
not  only  to  the  general  principle  of  looking  after  the  pence, 
but  to  each  individual  penny,  that  the  loss  of  a  single  one 
would  distress  him  as  much  as  that  of  a  golden  guinea. 

"  When  the  peaceful  exercise  of  his  duty  produces  a  har- 
mony between  a  man's  powers  and  feelings,  when  the  charm 
of  pure  relations  between  men  is  increased  and  ensured  by 
the  wider  recognition  of  certain  simple  and  lofty  truths, 
there  is  nothing  to  be  feared  from  prejudices ;  they  will 
disappear  before  the  natural  development  of  these  feelings 
and  powers  like  darkness  before  the  dawn. 

"  Human  knowledge  derives  its  real  advantages  from  the 
solidity  of  the  foundations  on  which  it  rests.  The  man  who 
knows  a  great  deal  must  be  stronger,  and  must  work  harder 
than  others,  if  he  is  to  bring  his  knowledge  into  harmony 
with  his  nature  and  with  the  circumstances  of  his  life.  If 
he  does  not  do  this,  his  knowledge  is  but  a  delusive  will-o'- 
the-wisp,  and  will  often  rob  him  of  such  ordinary  pleasixres 
of  life  as  even  the  most  ignorant  man,  if  he  have  but  common 
sense,  can  make  quite  sure  of.  That,  my  dear  friend,  is  why 
I  felt  it  to  be  so  important  that  this  harmony  of  the  soul's 
powers,  the  combined  effect  of  our  nature  and  first  impres- 
sions, should  not  be  disturbed  by  the  errors  of  human  art. 

"  I  have  now  put  before  you  my  views  as  to  the  family 
spirit  which  ought  to  prevail  in  an  educational  establishment, 
and  I  have  told  you  of  my  attempts  to  carry  them  out.  I 
have  still  to  explain  the  essential  principles  upon  which  all 
my  teaching  was  based. 

"I  knew  no  other  ordfr,  method,  or  art,  but  that  which 
resulted  naturally  from  my  children's  conviction  of  my  love 
for  them,  nor  did  I  care  to  know  any  other. 

"  Thus  I  subordinated  the  instruction  of  my  children  to  a 


PESTALOZZI  AT  STANZ.  167 

higher  aim,  which  was  to  arouse  and  strengthen  their  best 
sentiments  by  the  relations  of  e very-day  life  as  they  existed 
between  themselves  and  me. 

"  I  had  Gredicke's  reading-book,  but  it  was  of  no  more  use 
to  me  than  any  other  school-book ;  for  I  felt  that,  with  all 
these  children  of  such  different  ages,  I  had  an  admirable 
opportunity  for  carrying  out  my  own  views  on  early  educa- 
tion. I  was  well  aware,  too,  how  impossible  it  would  be  to 
organize  my  teaching  according  to  the  ordinary  system  in  use 
in  the  best  schools. 

"  As  a  general  rule  I  attached  little  importance  to  the  study 
of  words,  even  when  explanations  of  the  ideas  they  repre- 
sented were  given. 

"  I  tried  to  connect  study  with  manual  labour,  the  school 
with  the  workshop,  and  make  one  thing  of  them.  But  I  was 
the  less  able  to  do  this  as  staff,  material,  and  tools  were  all 
wanting.  A  short  time  only  before  the  close  of  the  establish- 
ment, a  few  children  had  begun  to  spin ;  and  I  saw  clearly 
that,  before  any  fusion  could  be  effected,  the  two  parts  must 
be  firmly  established  separately — study,  that  is,  on  the  one 
hand,  and  labour  on  the  other. 

"  But  in  the  work  of  the  children  I  was  already  inclined 
to  care  less  for  the  immediate  gain  than  for  the  physical 
training  which,  by  developing  their  strength  and  skill,  was 
bound  to  supply  them  later  with  a  means  of  livelihood.  In 
the  same  way  I  considered  that  what  is  generally  called  the 
instruction  of  children  should  be  merely  an  exercise  of  the 
faculties,  and  I  felt  it  important  to  exercise  the  attention, 
observation,  and  memory  first,  so  as  to  strengthen  these 
faculties  before  calling  into  play  the  art  of  judging  and 
reasoning ;  this,  in  my  opinion,  was  the  best  way  to  avoid 
turning  out  that  sort  of  superficial  and  presumptuous  talker, 
whose  false  judgments  are  often  more  fatal  to  the  happiness 
and  progress  of  humanity  than  the  ignorance  of  simple 
people  of  good  sense. 

- "  Guided  by  these  principles,  I  sought  less  at  first  to  teach 
my  children  to  spell,  read,  and  write  than  to  make  \ise  of 
these  exercises  for  the  purpose  of  giving  their  minds  as  full 
and  as  varied  a  development  as  possible. 

"  I  made  them  spell  by  heart  before  teaching  them  their 
ABC,  and  the  whole  class  could  thus  spell  the  hardest  words 
without  knowing  their  letters.  It  will  be  evident  to  every- 


1 68          PESTALOZZI:    HIS  LIFE  AND    WORK. 

body  how  great  a  call  this  made  on  their  attention.  I  followed 
at  first  the  order  of  words  in  Gredicke's  book,  but  I  soon  found 
it  more  useful  to  join  the  five  vowels  successively  to  the 
different  consonants,  and  so  form  a  well  graduated  series  of 
syllables  leading  from  simple  to  compound.1  .  .  . 

"  I  had  gone  rapidly  through  the  scraps  of  geography  and 
natural  history  in  Gredicke's  book.  Before  knowing  their 
letters  even,  they  could  say  properly  the  names  of  the  different 
countries.  In  natural  history  they  were  very  quick  in  cor- 
roborating what  I  taught  them  by  their  own  personal  obser- 
vations on  plants  and  animals.  I  am  quite  sure  that,  by 
continuing  in  this  way,  I  should  soon  have  been  able  not  only 
to  give  them  such  a  general  acquaintance  with  the  subject  as 
would  have  been  useful  in  any  vocation,  but  also  to  put  them 
in  a  position  to  carry  on  their  education  themselves  by  means 
of  their  daily  observations  and  experiences ;  and  I  should 
have  been  able  to  do  all  this  without  going  outside  the  very 
restricted  sphere  to  which  they  were  confined  by  the  actual 
circumstances  of  their  lives.  I  hold  it  to  be  extremely  im- 
portant that  men  should  be  encouraged  to  learn  by  themselves 
and  allowed  to  develop  freely.  It  is  in  this  way  alone  that 
the  diversity  of  individual  talent  is  produced  and  made 
evident. 

"  I  always  made  the  children  learn  perfectly  even  the  least 
important  things,  and  I  never  allowed  them  to  lose  ground  ; 
a  word  once  learnt,  for  instance,  was  never  to  be  forgotten, 
and  a  letter  once  well  written  never  to  be  written  badly 
again.  I  was  very  patient  with  all  who  were  weak  or  slow, 
but  very  severe  with  those  who  did  anything  less  well  than 
they  had  done  it  before. 

"  The  number  and  inequality  of  my  children  rendered  my 
task  easier.  Just  as  in  a  family  the  eldest  and  cleverest 
child  readily  shows  what  he  knows  to  his  younger  brothers 


1  We  have  here  suppressed  certain  details  which  app'y  to  German 
only,  and  can  hardly  be  translated.  But  it  is  clear  that  the  syllabaries 
for  teaching  reading,  which  were  not  employed  in  the  schools  till  long 
afterwards,  liad  already  at  this  time  been  invented  by  Pestalozzi.  He 
had  already  begun,  too,  to  connect  the  teaching  of  writing  with  that 
of  reading  and  spelling,  and  used  to  make  his  children  read  written 
chnracters  before  printed  ones.  His  views  on  this  subjpct  are  explained 
in  his  work,  How  to  Teach  Spelling  and  Reading.  Gtssner,  Zurich  and 
Berne,  1801. 


PESTALOZZI  AT  STANZ.  169 

and  sisters,  and  feels  proud  and  happy  to  be  able  to  take  his 
mother's  place  for  a  moment,  so  my  children  were  delighted 
when  they  knew  something  that  they  could  teach  others.  A 
sentiment  of  honour  awoke  in  them,  and  they  learned  twice 
as  well  by  making  the  younger  ones  repeat  their  words.  In 
this  way  I  soon  had  helpers  and  collaborators  amongst  the 
children  themselves.  "When  I  was  teaching  them  to  spell 
difficult  words  by  heart,  I  used  to  allow  any  child  who 
succeeded  in  saying  one  properly  to  teach  it  to  the  others. 
These  child-helpers,  whom  I  had  formed  from  the  very  out- 
set, and  who  had  followed  my  method  step  by  step,  were 
certainly  much  more  useful  to  me  than  any  regular  school- 
masters could  have  been. 

"  I  myself  learned  with  the  children.  Our  whole  system 
was  so  simple  and  so  natural  that  I  should  have  had  difficulty 
in  finding  a  master  who  would  not  have  thought  it  undignified 
to  learn  and  teach  as  I  was  doing. 

"  My  aim  was  so  to  simplify  the  means  of  instruction  that 
it  should  be  quite  possible  for  even  the  most  ordinary  man  to 
teach  his  children  himself ;  thus  schools  would  gradually 
almost  cease  to  be  necessary,  so  far  as  the  first  elements  are 
concerned.  Just  as  the  mother  gives  her  child  its  first 
material  food,  so  is  she  ordained  by  God  to  give  it  its  first 
spiritual  food,  and  I  consider  that  very  great  harm  is  done  to 
the  child  by  taking  it  away  from  home  too  soon  and  submit- 
ting it  to  artificial  school  methods.  The  time  is  drawing  near 
when  methods  of  teaching  will  be  so  simplified  that  each 
mother  will  be  able  not  only  to  teach  her  children  without 
help,  but  continue  her  own  education  at  the  same  time.  And 
this  opinion  is  justified  by  my  experience,  for  I  found  that  some 
of  my  children  developed  so  well  as  to  be  able  to  follow  in  my 
footsteps.  And  I  am  more  than  ever  convinced  that  as 
soon  as  we  have  educational  establishments  combined  with 
workshops,  and  conducted  on  a  truly  psychological  basis,  a 
generation  will  necessarily  be  formed  which,  on  the  one  hand, 
will  show  us  by  experience  that  our  present  studies  do  not 
require  one  tenth  part  of  the  time  or  trouble  we  now  give  to 
them,  and  on  the  other,  that  the  time  and  strength  this 
instruction  demands,  as  well  as  the  means  of  acquiring  it. 
may  be  made  to  fit  in  so  perfectly  with  the  conditions  of 
domestic  life,  that  every  parent  will  easily  be  able  to  supply 
it  by  a  member  or  friend  of  the  family,  a  result  which  will 
13 


170          PESTALOZZI:    HIS  LIFE  AND    WORK. 

daily  become  easier,  according  as  the  method  of  instruction 
is  simplified,  and  the  number  of  educated  people  increased. 

"  I  have  proved  two  things  which  will  be  of  considerable 
use  to  us  in  bringing  about  this  desirable  improvement.  The 
first  is  that  it  is  possible  and  even  easy  to  teach  many 
children  of  different  ages  at  once  and  well ;  the  second,  that 
many  things  can  be  taught  to  such  children  even  whilst 
they  are  engaged  in  manual  labour.  This  sort  of  teaching 
will  appear  little  more  than  an  exercise  of  memory,  as  indeed 
it  is ;  but  when  the  memory  is  applied  to  a  series  of  psycho- 
logically graduated  ideas,  it  brings  all  the  other  faculties  into 
play.  Thus,  by  making  children  learn  at  one  time  spelling, 
at  another  exercises  on  numbers,  at  another  simple  songs,  we 
exercise  not  only  their  memory,  but  their  power  of  combina- 
tion, their  judgment,  their  taste,  and  many  of  the  best  feelings 
of  their  hearts.  In  this  way  it  is  possible  to  stimulate  all  a 
child's  faculties,  even  when  one  seems  to  be  exercising  his 
memory  only. 

"These  exercises  not  only  gave  my  children  an  ever-increas- 
ing power  of  attention  and  discernment,  but  did  very  much 
for  their  general  mental  and  moral  development,  and  gave 
that  balance  to  their  natures  which  is  the  foundation  of 
human  wisdom. 

"  You  yourself  have  seen,  my  friend,  how  the  giddiest 
of  them  would  often  burst  into  tears,  how  the  courage  of 
innocence  developed,  and  how  the  higher  feelings  of  the  most 
intelligent  became  gradually  more  and  more  active.  You 
must  not,  however,  be  deceived,  and  think  that  the  work  was 
already  accomplished.  Moments  of  highest  hope  alternated 
with  hours  of  disorder,  sorrow,  and  anxiety. 

"  I  myself  was  not  always  the  same.  You  know  what  I 
am  when  ill-will  and  spite  are  in  league  against  me.  Like 
the  worm  that  so  easily  eats  its  way  into  the  fast-growing 
plant,  malice  attacked  the  very  heart  of  my  work. 

"  Certain  men  would  just  glance  at  my  immense  task,  and 
finding  something  which  was  not  so  well  managed  as  in  their 
own  room  or  kitchen,  or  in  some  richly  endowed  institution, 
would  at  once  give  me  the  benefit  of  their  advice  and  wisdom. 
But,  as  I  could  never  follow  it,  they  all  looked  on  me  as  a  mai. 
upon  whom  advice  was  thrown  away,  and  used  to  say  to  each 
other,  '  There  is  nothing  to  be  done  with  him ;  he  is  a  little 
queer  in  the  head.'  This  was  the  hardest  thing  I  had  to  bear 


PESTALOZZI  AT  STANZ.  171 

"  You  will  hardly  believe  that  it  was  the  Capuchin  friars 
and  the  nuns  of  the  convent  that  showed  the  greatest  sym- 
pathy with  my  work.  Few  people,  except  Truttman,  took 
any  active  interest  in  it.  Those  from  whom  I  had  hoped  most 
were  too  deeply  engrossed  with  their  high  political  affairs  to 
think  of  our  little  institution  as  having  the  least  degree  of 
importance. 

"  Such  were  my  dreams ;  but  at  the  very  moment  that  I 
seemed  to  be  on  the  point  of  realizing  them,  I  had  to  leave 
Stanz." 

In  spite  of  its  great  length  and  many  repetitions,  this  letter 
seems  to  us  to  be  one  of  the  most  interesting  and  important 
documents  in  the  whole  field  of  modern  pedagogy. 

It  contains  first  a  general  sketch  of  an  organic  education 
proceeding  from  within  to  without  by  the  development  and 
exercise  of  the  child's  faculties  and  sentiments.  It  speaks  of 
instruction  as  the  fruit  of  the  child's  own  activity,  which  must 
be  directed,  from  the  veiy  first,  in  view  of  that  growth  of  his 
faculties  which  will  enable  him  to  learn  by  himself.  It  speaks, 
besides,  of  a  rational  method  of  teaching  reading  combined 
with  writing  and  spelling,  of  the  introduction  into  the  popular 
school  of  useful  facts  of  geography  and  natural  history,  and 
of  the  first  attempt  at  that  system  of  mutual  instruction 
which  has  since  been  so  badly  imitated. 

The  conclusions  to  be  drawn  from  this  experiment  at  Stanz 
have  been  summed  up  by  Morf,  one  of  the  men  who  have 
studied  Pestalozzi  with  the  greatest  care  and  the  greatest 
intelligence,  and  the  author  of  the  most  complete  biography 
that  has  been  published  of  this  philosopher  of  education.  His 
summing  up  is  as -follows: 

1.  "  Man's  knowledge  must  be  founded  on  sense-impression. 
Without  this  basis,  it  is  but  empty  verbiage,  fraught  with  more 
danger  even  than  ignorance  for  the  future  happiness  of  men. 

2.  "  Each  branch  of  instruction  must  start  from  a  point 
which  is  within  reach  of  the  child's  earliest  powers.     From 
this  point  he  must  be  led  forward  by  a. chain  of  ideas  so  care- 
fully graduated,  that  he  is  able  to  reach  each  successive  link 
by  his  own  strength. 

3.  "  The  method  and  means  of  instruction  must  be  made 
so  clear  and  so  simple  as  to  be  capable  of  adoption  by  all 
mothers  and  teachers,  no  matter  how  little  talent  or  education 


172          PESTALOZZI:    HIS  LIFE  AND    WORK. 

they  may  have.     In  no  other  way  can  we  look  for  any  large 
diffusion  of  enlightenment  amongst  the  people. 

4.  "In  each  branch   the   child  must  be  exercised  in  the 
simplest  elements  till  he  is  entirely  master  of  them,  and  it 
must   be  the  same  for  every  step  that  adds  anything  new 
to  what  is  already  known.     Wherever  this  principle  is  not 
faithfully  observed,  there  can  be  no  true  intellectual  culture, 
but  merely  a  confused  knowledge,  which  must  remain  barren. 

5.  "Teaching  must  be  addressed  to  the  whole  class,  and  not 
merely  to  each  individual  child ;  the  chief  means  for  this  is 
to  make  the  whole  class  repeat  the  master's  words  in  chorus. 
In  this  way  everybody  is  occupied,  nobody  remains  inactive, 
all  are  compelled  to  take  part  in  the  common  work. 

6.  "  Time  or  rhythm,  which  men  find  so  useful  in  any  com- 
bined work  or  game,  must  also  be  observed  in  this  exercise. 
It  prevents  the  confusion  which  would  result  from  a  large 
number  of  voices,  and  strengthens  the  impression  made  by 
the  teaching. 

7.  "  With  this  method  of  instruction,  children  can  practise 
writing  and  drawing,  even  while  they  are  being  taught  other 
things.      In  this   way  they  train  their  hand  and  eye,  and 
begin  to  form  their  taste.     Pestalozzi  employed  slates  for  this 
purpose,  on  which  the  children  wrote  with  pencils  of  the  same 
material.     The  advantages  of  this  latter  innovation,  which 
was  due  to  Pestalozzi,  and  has  since  rendered  so  much  service 
in  elementary  schools,  are  its  cheapness  and  the  ease  with 
which  writing  can  be  rubbed  out  and  corrected." 

I  These  propositions,  which  resume  the  main  points  of  the 
letter  we  have  quoted,  contain  the  essential  principles  upon 

\  which,  in  the  present  century,  the  general  reform  of  element- 
ary education  has  been  conducted,  and  which  have  led  in 
particular  to  the  institution  of  good  primary  schools. 

We  have  now  to  see  how  Pestalozzi  applied  and  developed 
these  principles  in  the  new  openings  he  found  for  his  inde 
fatigable  activity. 


CHAPTER  IX. 

PESTALOZZI   AT  BURGDORF. 

After  teaching  gratuitously  in  the  Non-Burgesses'  School,  he  tit 
appointed  to  the  Burgesses1  School.  The  School  Commission 
report  on  his  method.  He  presents  an  account  of  his  doc- 
trine to  the  Society  of  the  Friends  of  Education.  His  health 
seriously  impaired  by  overwork. 

PESTALOZZI  did  not  stay  long  at  the  Gurnigel.     No  sooner 
had  his  health  begun  to  mend  than  he  was  again  seized  with 
that  impetuous  zeal  for  what  he  called  his  work,  his  work  ' 
without  which  he  could  not  live — the  raising  of  the  people  by 
education.     He  impatiently  awaited  the  evacuation  of  Lower  . 
Unterwalden  by  the  French  troops,  for  he  wanted  to  return 
to  Stanz  and  continue  his  experiment.     We  have  seen  that 
the  decision  of  the  Government  made  this  impossible. 

Once  more  Pestalozzi  saw  the  destruction  of  all  his  hopes. 
Not  in  a  position  to  found  such  an  establishment  as  he  had 
always  thought  necessary  for  the  realization  of  his  views,  and 
obliged  to  give  up  this  project  that  he  had  cherished  for  so 
long,  he  had  now  to  look  for  some  other  way  of  reaching  the 
same  end,  and  he  decided  to  become  a  schoolmaster. 

It  was  to  the  little  town  of  Burgdorf,  in  the  canton  of 
Berne,  that  he  offered  his  services ;  he  asked  for  no  salary, 
but  simply  for  permission  to  give  lessons  to  the  children  of 
one  of  the  primary  schools.  This  modest  request  was  at  first 
refused,  and  we  can  hardly  wonder  at  it. 

Till  then  Pestalozzi's  only  real  success  had  been  the  publi- 
cation of  Leonard  and  Gertrude.  His  practical  experiments 
had  been  very  short-lived,  and  had  left  nothing  behind  them 
calculated  to  give  the  public  a  favourable  idea  of  his  talents. 
"  He  seems  to  work  well  enough  for  a  few  months,"  people 
had  said  when  he  left  Stanz,  "  but  it  does  not  last.  We  might 
have  known  that  it  would  be  so ;  he  knows  nothing  thoroughly, 


174          PESTALOZZI:    HIS  LIFE  AND    WORK. 

and  is  entirely  unpractical.     Because  lie  wrote  a  novel  at 
thirty,  it  does  not  follow  that  he  can  teach  at  fifty." 

Charles  Monnard  describes  Pestalozzi  at  this  time  as 
follows : 

"  At  that  time  the  Burgdorf  authorities  would  not  have 
dared  to  entrust  Pestalozzi  with  a  primary  school ;  this  man, 
since  so  celebrated,  would  have  had  no  chance  whatever  against 
even  the  most  ordinary  candidates.  He  had  everything 
against  him ;  thick,  indistinct  speech,  bad  writing,  ignorance 
of  drawing,  scorn  of  grammatical  learning.  He  had  studied 
various  branches  of  natural  history,  but  without  any  par- 
ticular attention  either  to  classification  or  terminology.  He 
was  conversant  with  the  ordinary  numerical  operations,  but 
he  would  have  had  difficulty  to  get  through  a  really  long  sum 
in  multiplication  or  division,  and  had  probably  never  tried  to 
work  out  a  problem  in  geometry.  For  years  this  dreamer  had 
read  no  books. 

"  He  could  not  even  sing,  though,  when  unusually  excited 
or  elated,  he  would  hum  snatches  of  poetry  to  himself ;  not, 
however,  with  very  much  tune. 

"  But  instead  of  the  usual  knowledge  that  any  young  man 
of  ordinary  talent  can  acquire  in  two  years,  he  understood 
thoroughly  what  most  masters  were  entirely  ignorant  of — the 
mind  of  man  and  the  laws  of  its  development,  human  affec- 
tions, and  the  art  of  arousing  and  ennobling  them..  He  seemed 
to  have  almost  an  intuitive  insight  into  the  development  of 
human  nature,  which  indeed  he  was  never  tired  of  contem- 
plating." l 

Two  men,  however,  of  a  certain  influence  in  the  town, 
Schnell,  prefect  of  Burgdorf,  and  Doctor  Grimm,  recognised 
Pestalozzi's  true  merit.  They  interceded  in  his  favour,  and 
after  some  trouble,  obtained  permission  for  him  to  teach  in 
a  little  school  in  the  lower  town  intended  for  the  children  of 
non-burgesses. 

Burgdorf  is  situated  a  few  leagues  to  the  north-east  of 
Berne,  on  the  river  Emme,  where  the  rich  valley  of  the  same 
name  opens  into  the  plain  of  the  river  Aar.  An  ancient 

1  History  of  the  Sici$»  Confederation,  the  continuation  of  Jean  de 
Muller. 


PESTALOZZI  AT  BURGDCRF.  175 

castle,  the  abode  of  the  Bailiffs,  crowns  the  summit  of  a  small 
hill,  round  the  sides  of  which  the  narrow  streets  of  the  upper 
town  are  built  one  above  the  other.  This  upper  town  was 
principally  inhabited  by  rich  people  and  burgesses,  those,  that 
is,  who  had  certain  rights  connected  with  the  town  property ; 
whereas  the  lower  town  at  the  foot  of  the  hill  was  occupied 
by  the  poorer  people  and  non-burgesses.  As  the  latter,  who 
were  looked  upon  as  little  better  than  strangers,  were  not 
allowed  to  send  their  children  to  the  schools  of  the  burgesses, 
a  special  school  had  been  established  for  them  in  the  lower 
town.  At  this  time,  this  school  contained  seventy-three 
children.  The  master,  Samuel  Dysli,  was  a  shoemaker,  who 
taught  the  children  in  his  own  house,  and  worked  at  his 
trade  in  the  intervals  of  teaching.  Siegfried's  elements  of 
instruction,  the  Heidelberg  Catechism,  and  the  Psalms  were 
the  only  things  taught,  and  the  only  means  of  teaching.  And 
yet  at  that  time  Burgdorf  was  one  of  the  smaller  .places,  not 
only  in  Switzerland  but  in  Europe,  where  most  attention 
was  given  to  popular  education.  We  may  judge  from  this  of 
the  necessity  and  extent  of  the  reforms  brought  about  by 
Pestalozzi. 

Such  was  the  school,  then,  into  which  the  old  man  was  ad- 
mitted to  teach  towards  the  end  of  July,  1799,  about  half  the 
children  being  entrusted  to  his  care.  His  lessons  had  nothing 
in  common  with  the  ordinary  lessons  of  the  day;  he  used 
neither  books  nor  copy-books,  the  Catechism  and  Psalms  were 
abandoned,  the  children  had  nothing  to  learn  by  heart,  no- 
thing to  prepare  or  to  write,  and  no  questions  to  answer. 
Their  principal  exercise  consisted  in  repeating  Pestalozzi's 
words  all  together,  whilst  they  drew  on  their  slates,  not 
letters  as  at  Stanz,  but  anything  they  liked. 

Samuel  Dysli,  however,  could  not  bear  to  see  this  stranger 
teaching  in  his  class,  and  dreaded  being  supplanted  by  him. 
The  new  method,  which  he  did  not  in  the  least  understand, 
he  regarded  as  an  utter  abomination,  and  he  was  especially 
scandalized  by  Pestalozzi's  neglect  of  the  Heidelberg  Cate- 
chism. He  mentioned  his  dissatisfaction  to  the  parents 
of  the  children,  and  easily  succeeded  in  alarming  them,  and 
inducing  them  to  unite  and  declare  that  they  would  not  have 
this  intruder  in  their  school.  "  If  the  burgesses  approve  of 
this  new  method,"  they  said,  "  let  them  adopt  it  for  their  own 
children." 


i/6          PESTALOZZI:    HIS  LIFE  AND    WORK. 

The  authorities  had  to  give  way,  and  once  more  Pestalozzi 
found  himself  condemned  to  inaction. 

Schnell  and  Grimm,  however,  had  so  thoroughly  entered 
into  his  views  that  they  did  not  give  up,  but  spoke  in  his 
favour  with  renewed  zeal,  and  procured  his  admission  into 
one  of  the  burgess-schools. 

There  were  at  that  time  at  Burgdorf  three  classes  of  boys 
and  three  of  girls ;  the  girls  were  under  the  care  of  a  lady, 
Miss  Stahli,  though  they  took  a  certain  number  of  lessons  in 
the  classes  intended  for  the  boys.  Children  were  admitted 
into  these  classes  at  the  age  of  eight,  the  younger  ones  having 
a  sort  of  preparatory  class  that  was  called  the  spelling  and 
reading  school,  and  was  under  the  direction  of  Miss  Stahli'a 
younger  sister. 

It  was  in  this  preparatory  class  that  Pestalozzi  was  now 
allowed  to  teach.  It  contained  from  twenty  to  twenty-five 
children  of  both  sexes,  aged  from  five  to  eight. 

In  his  first  letter  to  Gressner  (How  Gertrude  Teaches  her 
Children),  Pestalozzi  describes  his  new  position  in  these 
words : 

"I  thought  I  was  fortunate,  though  at  first  I  was  continually 
afraid  of  dismissal,  and  that  made  me  more  than  usually  awk- 
ward. When  I  remember  with  what  spirit  and  ardour  I  made 
an  enchanted  temple  of  my  school  at  Stanz,  and  the  agony  I 
suffered  under  my  yoke  at  Burgdorf,  I  can  hardly  understand 
how  the  same  man  can  have  played  two  such  different  parts. 

"Here  in  Burgdorf,  the  school  was  subject  to  rules, reasonable 
enough  as  it  seemed,  yet  not  entirely  free  from  pretension  and 
pedantry.  All  that  was  new  to  me.  Never  in  my  life  had  I 
submitted  to  anything  of  the  kind;  but  I  was  anxious  to 
reach  my  goal,  so  I  put  up  with  it.  I  once  more  began  cry- 
ing my  ABC  from  morning  till  night,  following  without  any 
plan  the  empirical  method  interrupted  at  Stanz.  I  was  inde- 
fatigable in  putting  syllables  together  and  arranging  them  in 
a  graduate!  series;  I  did  the  same  for  numbers;  I  filled 
whole  note-books  with  them ;  I  sought  by  every  means  to 
simplify  the  elements  of  reading  and  arithmetic,  and  by 
grouping  them  psychologically,  enable  the  child  to  pass  easily 
and  surely  from  the  first  step  to  the  second,  from  the  second 
to  the  third,  and  so  on.  The  pupils  no  longer  drew  letters  on 
their  slates,  but  lines,  curves,  angles,  and  squares." 


PESTALOZZI  AT  BURGDORF.  177 

At  the  same  time  Pestalozzi  placed  before  the  eyes  of  his 
children  large  drawings  of  different  objects  which  he  taught 
them  to  observe  and  describe.  One  day  he  was  thus  making 
them  study  a  drawing  of  a  window  in  which  the  children 
were  to  count  the  number  of  panes,  bars,  etc.,  when  one  of 
them,  after  looking  fixedly  at  the  window  of  the  room,  ex- 
claimed :  "  Could  we  not  learn  as  well  from  the  window  itself 
as  from  this  drawing  ?  " 

•  This  was  new  light  to  Pestalozzi.  "  The  child  is  right," 
he  cried ;  "  he  will  not  have  anything  come  between  Nature 
and  himself,"  and  he  forthwith  put  his  drawings  away,  and 
made  his  pupils  observe  the  objects  in  the  room. 

Pestalozzi  had  been  teaching  thus  in  this  school  for  eight 
months,  when  in  March,  1800,  the  annual  examination  took 
place,  the  results  of  which  are  stated  in  the  following  letter 
addressed  to  Pestalozzi  by  the  Burgdorf  school  commission. 
This  is  the  first  public  sign  of  approval  given  to  the  method 
which  was  soon  to  acquire  so  great  a  reputation. 

"  The  School  Commission  of  Burgdorf  to  citizen  Pesta- 
lozzi. 

"  Citizen, — 

"  You  have  given  us  great  pleasure  in  submitting  to  our 
examination  the  children  you  have  been  teaching  for  the 
past  eight  months,  and  we  feel  it  to  be  our  duty,  not  so  much 
for  your  sake  as  for  the  sake  of  your  work,  to  put  before  you 
in  writing  the  opinions  we  have  formed  concerning  them. 

"  So  far  as  we  are  able  to  judge,  all  that  you  yourself 
hoped  from  your  method  of  teaching  has  been  realized.  You 
have  shown  what  powers  already  exist  in  even  the  youngest 
child,  in  what  way  these  powers  are  to  be  developed,  and  how 
each  talent  must  be  sought  out  and  exercised  in  such  a  way 
as  to  bring  it  to  maturity.  The  astonishing  progress  made 
by  all  your  young  pupils,  in  spite  of  their  many  differences  in 
character  and  disposition,  clearly  shows  that  every  child  is 
good  for  something,  when  the  master  knows  how  to  find  out 
his  talents,  and  cultivate  them  in  a  truly  psychological  man- 
ner. Your  teaching  has  brought  to  light  the  foundations  on 
which  all  instruction  must  be  based,  if  it  is  ever  to  be  of  any 
real  use ;  it  also  shows  that  from  the  tenderest  age,  and  in  a 
very  short  time,  a  child's  mind  can  attain  a  wonderful  breadth 
of  development  which  must  make  its  influence  felt,  not  only 


178          PESTALOZZI:  HIS  LIFE  AND  WORK. 

during  his  feAV  years  of   study,  but   throughout  his  whole 
life. 

"  Whereas  by  the  difficult  method  hitherto  in  vogue, 
children  from  five  to  eight  years  old  learnt  nothing  but  let- 
ters, spelling,  and  reading,  your  pupils  have  not  only  suc- 
ceeded in  these  things  to  a  degree  which  is  altogether  unpre- 
cedented, but  the  cleverest  among  them  are  also  distinguished 
for  their  good  writing,  and  their  talent  for  drawing  and 
arithmetic.  In  all  of  them  you  have  aroused  and  cultivated 
such  a  taste  for  history,  natural  history,  geography,  mea- 
suring, etc.,  that  their  future  masters  will  find  their  task 
incredibly  lightened  if  they  do  but  know  how  to  turn  thia 
preparation  to  advantage. 

"  In  future  the  higher  classes  will  receive  from  your  hands, 
or  from  those  of  a  master  who  follows  your  method,  not 
children  who  still  require  to  spend  years  over  the  first  ele- 
ments, but  children  who  know  them  thoroughly,  and  possess 
besides  a  solid  foundation  of  useful  knowledge. 

"  Your  method  df  teaching  has  also  many  other  advantages 
over  those  that  have  been  employed  hitherto.  Not  only  does 
it  increase  the  rate  of  the  child's  progress,  and  give  variety 
to  his  knowledge,  but  it  is  especially  suitable  for  the  home, 
where  the  mother,  or  an  elder  child,  or  a  sensible  servant, 
could  easily  carry  it  out.  What  an  advantage  this  is  both 
for  parents  and  children ! 

"  We  do  not  think  it  is  exceeding  our  province  to  say  that 
you  have  rendered  lasting  services  to  our  children  and  schools, 
and  that  we  are  proud  to  have  been  chosen  by  you  to  help  to 
carry  out  the  noble  plans  which  do  you  so  much  honour,  and 
which  will  make  the  task  of  future  schoolmasters  so  much 
lighter.  In  your  zealous  efforts  to  realize  an  idea  so  carefully 
thought  out,  and  so  thoroughly  adapted  to  the  needs  of 
humanity,  may  you  not  be  hampered  by  the  critical  position 
of  our  country,  by  any  lack  of  public  support,  by  jealousy  or 
any  other  passion.  May  nothing,  in  short,  turn  you  aside 
from  your  favourite  work  of  education  and  the  ennobling  of 
childhood. 

"  Would  that  we  might  be  able  to  aiford  you  some  slight 
assistance  towards  this  great  end. 

"  With  republican  greeting  and  true  regard, 

"  In  the  name  of  the  School  Commission, 

"  The  President :  EM.  KUPFERSOHMID." 


PESTALOZZI  AT  BURG  DO  RF.  179 


"Burgdorf,  March  31st,  1800. 

"  Convinced  of  the  truth  of  this  testimony,  and  in  token  of 
my  regard,  I  have  affixed  the  seal  of  my  office  to  this 
document. 

"The  Prefect  of  the  district  of  Burgdorf :  J.  SCHNELL." 

This  testimony  does  the  greatest  honour  to  the  Burgdorf 
Commission.  In  spite  of  all  the  blunders,  irregularities,  and 
oddities  of  the  new  method,  in  spite  of  its  evident  defects  of 
form,  and  the  many  prejudices  they  excited,  the  commis- 
sioners succeeded  in  discovering  the  real  merit  of  the  work  as 
neither  Businger  nor  Zschokke  had  been  able  to  do  ;  and  yet 
Pestalozzi  was  not  less  awkward  at  Burgdorf  than  at  Stanz. 

The  document,  moreover,  contains  abundant  proof  that 
the  old  man  was  not  so  incapable  of  teaching  as  was  gener- 
ally supposed,  for  it  points  to  real,  rapid,  and  astonishing 
progress  on  the  part  of  his  scholars.  Nor  was  Pestalozzi  so 
unpractical  as  he  himself  believed  ;  we  need  no  better  proof 
of  this  than  the  very  practical  inventions  by  which  he 
sought  to  make  teaching  easier ;  the  use  of  slates  for  writing 
and  drawing  for  instance,  and  of  large  movable  letters  for 
reading.  The  latter  accompanied  his  book  for  teaching 
reading  already  referred  to.  It  was  by  their  means  that  he 
so  quickly  taught  the  little  Burgdorf  children  to  read. 
Movable  letters  have  since  been  very  generally  used,  but 
not  always  with  Pestalozzi's  success ;  of tep  indeed  they  have 
been  little  more  than  useless  playthings.  We  must  also 
mention  his  tables  for  teaching  arithmetic  by  sense-impres- 
sion ;  they  were  not  completed  till  afterwards,  but  already 
in  his  small  class  at  Burgdorf  he  made  use  of  boards  on 
which  units  were  represented  by  dots. 

Such  was  the  first  success  of  the  "  method,"  the  first  at 
least  that  was  publicly  pi'oclaimed.  But  Pestalozzi's  joy  in  it 
was  soon  disturbed,  for  he  was  called  away  to  Neuhof  by 
the  painful  news  of  the  dangerous  illness  of  his  beloved  son, 
Jacobli. 

In  a  few  days  all  immediate  danger  had  disappeared,  but 
the  patient  remained  paralyzed.  The  poor  father  passed  his 
Easter  vacation  at  the  bedside  of  his  dear  and  only  child, 
and  then  sadly  returned  to  Burgdorf. 

It  was  probably  in  consequence  of  the  favourable  report 
that  had  just  been  published  on  his  work  in  the  preparatory 


i8o          PESTALOZZI ' :  HIS  LIFE  AND    WORK. 

class,  that  Pestalozzi  was  now  appointed  to  the  second  class, 
which  contained  about  sixty  children  of  both  sexes,  of  ages 
varying  from  six  to  fifteen,  who  were  taught  Bible  history, 
geography,  Swiss  history,  arithmetic,  and  writing.  Several 
of  the  pupils  also  received  elementary  lessons  in  Latin  from 
the  master  of  the  first  class. 

It  was  in  this  second  class  that  in  May,  1800,  Pestalozzi 
resumed  his  experiments.  The  activity  he  now  displayed 
has  been  curiously  described  by  one  of  his  pupils,  who  was 
then  a  child  of -ten  years  old,  but  who  thirty-eight  years 
afterwards  published  his  autobiography,  with  the  title  of  A 
Short  Sketch  of  my  Pedagogical  Life.  This  was  John  Ram- 
sauer,  a  poor  orphan,  who,  driven  from  his  native  place 
by  the  misfortunes  of  the  war,  had  found  a  home  with  a 
charitable  lady  at  Schleumen,  near  Burgdorf.  Trained  by 
Pestalozzi,  he  became  a  most  successful  teacher,  and  was 
finally  appointed  tutor  to  the  princes  and  princesses  of 
Oldenburg. 

The  following  is  Ramsauer's  account  of  Pestalozzi  and  his 
school  at  Burgdorf  during  the  summer  of  1800 : 

"  So  far  as  ordinary  school  knowledge  was  concerned, 
neither  I  nor  the  other  boys  learned  anything.  But  his  zeal, 
love,  and  unselfishness,  combined  with  his  painful  and  serious 
position,  evident  even  to  the  children,  made  a  most  profound 
impression  upon  me,  and  won  my  child's  heart,  naturally 
disposed  to  be  grateful,  for  ever.  And  thus,  when  my  bene- 
factress went  away  to  Berne  for  the  winter,  and  gave  the 
two  children  she  had  rescued  the  choice  of  going  with  her 
or  staying  at  Burgdorf,  I  decided  at  once  for  the  latter  course, 
whereas  my  companion  preferred  the  beautiful  and  wealthy 
capital. 

"It  is  impossible  to  draw  a  clear  and  complete  picture  of 
this  school,  but  here  are  a  few  details.  According  to  the 
ideas  of  Pestalozzi,  all  teaching  was  to  start  from  three 
elements :  language,  number,  and  form.  He  had  no  plan  of 
studies  and  no  order  of  lessons,  and  as  he  did  not  limit  him- 
self to  any  fixed  time,  he  often  followed  the  same  subject  for 
two  or  three  hours  together.  We  were  about  sixty  boys  and 
girls  from  eight  to  fifteen  years  old.  Our  lessons  lasted  from 
eight  till  eleven  in  the  morning,  and  from  two  till  four  in  the 
afternoon.  All  the  teaching  was  limited  to  drawing,  arith- 


PESTALOZZI  AT  BURG  DO  RF.  181 

metic,  and  exercises  in  language.  We  neither  read  nor 
wrote ;  we  had  neither  books  nor  copy-books ;  we  learnt 
nothing  by  heart.  For  drawing  we  were  given  neither 
models  nor  directions ;  only  slates  and  red  chalk,  and  while 
Pestalozzi  was  making  us  repeat  sentences  on  natural  history 
as  an  exercise  in  language,  we  had  to  draw  just  what  we 
liked.  But  we  did  not  know  what  to  draw.  Some  of  us 
drew  little  men  and  women,  others  houses,  others  lines  or 
arabesques,  according  to  their  fancy.  Pestalozzi  never  looked 
at  what  we  had  drawn,  or  rather  scribbled,  but  from  the  state 
of  our  clothes  it  was  pretty  evident  that  we  had  been  using 
red  chalk.  For  arithmetic  we  had  little  boards  divided  into 
squares,  in  which  were  dots  that  we  had  to  count,  add,  sub- 
tract, multiply,  and  divide.  It  was  from  this  that  Krusi  and 
Buss  (Pestalozzi's  assistants),  first  took  the  idea  of  their 
"  table  of  units,"  and  afterwards  of  their  "  table  of  fractions." 
But  as  Pestalozzi  did  nothing  but  make  us  repeat  these 
exercises  one  after  another,  without  asking  us  any  questions, 
this  process,  excellent  as  it  was,  never  did  us  very  much 
good. 

"  Our  master  never  had  the  patience  to  go  back,  and, 
carried  away  by  his  excessive  zeal,  he  paid  little  attention  to 
each  individual  scholar.  The  language  exercises  were  the  best 
thing  we  had,  especially  those  on  the  wall-paper  of  the  school- 
room, which  were  real  practice  in  sense-impression.  We  spent 
hours  before  this  old  and  torn  paper-,  occupied  in  examining 
the  number,  form,  position,  and  colour  of  the  different  designs, 
holes,  and  rents,  and  expressing  our  ideas  in  more  and  more 
enlarged  sentences.  Thus  he  would  ask:  'Boys,  what  do 
you  see  ? '  (He  never  addressed  the  girls.) 
"  Answer  : 

"  '  A  hole  in  the  paper.' 
"  Pestalozzi  : 

"  '  Very  well,  say  after  me  :— 

" '  I  see  a  hole  in  the  paper.  - 

"  '  I  see  a  long  hole  in  the  paper. 

" '  Through  the  hole  I  see  the  wall. 

"  '  Through  the  long  narrow  hole  I  see  the  walL 

"  '  I  see  figures  on  the  paper. 

"  '  I  see  black  figures  on  the  paper. 

"  '  I  see  round  black  figures  on  the  paper. 

"  '  I  see  a  square  yellow  figure  on  the  paper. 


182          PESTALOZZI;   IHS  LIFE  AND    WORK. 

"  '  By  the  side  of  the  square  yellow  figure  I  see  a  round 
black  one. 

"  '  The  square  figure  is  joined  to  the  round  figure  by  a  large 
black  stripe,  etc.' 

"  The  exercises  on  natural  history  were  not  so  good. 

"  As  Pestalozzi  in  his  zeal  took  no  notice  of  time,  he  often 
continued  till  eleven  o'clock  what  he  had  begun  at  eight, 
though  by  ten  he  was  already  hot  and  tired.  We  generally 
knew  it  was  eleven  by  the  noise  the  children  from,  the  other 
schools  made  in  the  street,  and  we  then  very  often  ran  out 
with  a  rush  without  asking  permission.  Although  afterwards 
Pestalozzi  always  strictly  forbade  his  masters  to  use  corporal 
punishment,  he  did  not  always  spare  the  children  himself. 
It  is  true  that  most  of  them  led  him  a  hard  life.  I  felt  a 
great  pity  for  him,  and  tried  to  behave  better  on  that  account. 
He  very  soon  noticed  it,  and  often  at  eleven  o'clock,  when 
it  was  fine,  he  took  me  with  him  in  his  walks  on  the  banks 
of  the  Emme,  where  he  went  to  search  for  minerals.  I  had 
to  help  him,  but  I  was  very  much  puzzled  to  know  which  to 
choose  among  the  thousands  of  stones  on  the  banks.  He 
himself  knew  very  little  about  it ;  but  he  always  filled  his 
handkerchief  and  pockets  with  stones,  which  he  carried  home 
and  never  looked  at  again." 

After  reading  this  grotesque  description,  we  can  hardly 
wonder  that  at  this  time  Pestalozzi's  work  was  occasionally 
looked  upon  as  mere  folly.  We  must  not  forget,  however, 
that  Ramsauer  was  then  only  ten  years  old,  and  that  in  all 
probability  the  points  of  Pestalozzi's  method  which  made  the 
strongest  impressions  upon  him  were  its  weaknesses  and 
eccentricities. 

It  is  besides  perfectly  true  that  in  his  school  at  Burgdorf 
Pestalozzi's  work  was  still  tentative  and  experimental,  and 
that  he  concerned  himself  comparatively  little  with  the 
immediate  instruction  of  his  pupils.  He  was  not  yet  clear 
himself  as  to  what  his  method  really  was,  and  could  hardly 
have  given  an  explanation  of  it.  He  was,  in  fact,  still  seeking 
a  principle. 

It  was  in  this  same  summer  of  1800  that  the  clue  was 
given  him  by  a  word  let  fall  by  a  member  of  the  Executive 
Commission,  Mr.  Gleyre,  of  the  Canton  of  Vaud.  Pestalozzi 
himself  relates  the  incident  in  the  first  letter  to  Gessner 


PESTALOZZI  AT  BURGDORF.  183 

(How  Gertrude   Teaches  Her  Children),   dated  the  1st  of 
January,  1801 : 

"  Whilst,  in  the  dust  of  the  school,  I  thus  sought  to  fulfil 
the  duties  it  imposed  on  me,  not  superficially,  but  with  my 
whole  strength,  I  was  confronted  at  each  moment  by  facts 
which  threw  increasing  light  on  the  physico-mechanical  laws 
by  which  our  mind  is  rendered  capable  of  receiving  and  re- 
taining impressions.  Each  day  I  endeavoured  more  and  more 
to  follow  these  laws  in  my  teaching,  although  I  did  not 
thoroughly  grasp  the  principle  upon  which  they  reposed  until 
last  summer,  when  Councillor  Gleyre,  to  whom  I  was  trying 
to  explain  my  method,  suddenly  exclaimed  :  '  I  see,  you  want 
to  make  education  mechanical.'  He  had  hit  the  nail  on  the 
head,  and  supplied  me  with  the  very  word  I  wanted  to  express 
my  aim  and  the  means  I  employed.  I  might  perhaps  have 
remained  a  long  time  without  finding  it,  for  I  had  no  clear 
conception  of  what  I  was  doing,  but  merely  followed  a  strong 
though  vague  feeling  which  told  me  what  to  do  without 
telling  me  why.  It  could  not,  indeed,  be  otherwise.  For 
thirty  years  I  had  read  no  books ;  I  was,  in  fact,  no  longer 
able  to  read.  I  had  little  power  left  of  expressing  abstract 
ideas,  and  lived,  as  it  were,  amidst  a  crowd  of  intuitive 
convictions,  the  outcome  of  weighty  experiences  for  the  most 
part  forgotten." 

It  must  be  added  that  in  the  second  edition  (1821)  of  the 
work  we  have  just  quoted,  Pestalozzi  judges  differently.  He 
points  out  that  the  word  mechanical  expresses  an  idea  which 
is  contrary  to  his  views,  and  that  if  he  adopted  it  at  first,  it 
was  only  because  his  ignorance  of  French  prevented  his 
understanding  its  real  meaning. 

He  had,  however,  begun  by  accepting  it  and  using  it,  and 
we  can  imagine  the  sort  of  impression  strangers  must  have 
carried  away,  when  he  told  them  that  his  aim  was  to  make 
education  mechanical. 

His  error  was  not  of  long  duration.  An  account  of  his 
doctrine,  written  shortly  after  his  conversation  with  Gleyre, 
begins  thus  :  "  I  want  to  psychologize  education."  Thus  he 
is  already  making  a  new  word  to  replace  the  one  he  now  feels 
to  be  unfit. 

No  one  had  been  more  pleased  with  Pestalozzi's  success  in 


184          PESTALOZZI:  HIS  LIFE  AND    WORK. 

the  little  elementary  scliool  than  Stapfer.  But  as,  in  spite  of 
this  success,  the  old  man's  views  were  still  comparatively 
ignored,  Stapfer  founded,  in  June,  1800,  a  Society  of  Friends 
of  Education,  for  the  purpose  of  making  them  more  generally 
known.  The  Society  appointed  a  Commission,  chosen  from 
its  own  members,  to  examine  Pestalozzi's  method  and  report 
on  it.  The  Commissioners,  amongst  whom  were  such  dis- 
tinguished men  as  Paul  Usteri,  of  Zurich,  and  Luthi,  of 
Soleure,  asked  Pestalozzi  to  furnish,  them  with  a  short 
account  of  his  doctrine  and  method  of  working.  Pestalozzi 
at  once  consented,  and  drew  up  the  statement  of  which  we 
have  already  quoted  the  opening  sentence. 

This  document,  which  is  Pestalozzi's  first  systematic  state- 
ment of  his  "  method,"  is  of  very  considerable  importance,  not 
only  because  at  this  time  he  was  still  working  alone,  but 
because  it  sets  forth  his  doctrine  with  a  clearness  and  pre- 
cision that  are  hardly  to  be  found  in  any  other  of  his  writings. 
Unfortunately  it  was  never  published,  and  has  remained  almost 
unknown.  It  is  wanting  even  in  the  collection  published  by 
Seyffarth,  at  Brandenburg,  which  is  the  most  complete  edition 
of  Pestalozzi's  works.  Niederer,  we  believe,  incorporated  it 
in  his  Notes  on  Pestalozzi,  Aix-la-Chapelle,  1828,  but  this 
book  is  no  longer  to  be  found. 

The  author  begins  by  developing  the  idea  contained  in  his 
first  sentence :  "I  want  to  psychologize  human  education." 
He  explains  that  his  aim  is  to  base  all  methods  of  teaching 
on  the  eternal  laws  which  regulate  the  development  of  the 
human  mind,  and  that  he  has  endeavoured,  by  conforming  to 
these  laws,  to  simplify  the  elements  of  knowledge,  and  reduce 
them  to  such  psychologically  connected  series  of  notions  as 
shall  ensure  even  for  the  lowest  classes  of  society  a  real 
physical,  intellectual,  and  moral  development. 

He  then  shows  that  sense-impression,  joined  to  exercises  in 
language  for  expressing  the  different  impressions  received, 
must  be  the  foundation  of  education,  and  he  points  to  lan- 
guage, drawing,  writing,  arithmetic,  and  the  art  of  measuring 
as  being  the  most  general  elements  of  culture,  as  well  as 
those  that  the  experience  of  centuries  has  consecrated.  He 
then  gives  a  few  series  of  elementary  notions  which  he  has 
already  drawn  up,  and  indicates  the  branches  of  study  for 
which  such  work  has  still  to  be  done. 

In  the  course  of  his  exposition  he  often  comes  back  to  the 


PES1ALOZZI  AT  BURCDORF.  185 

inexact  -word  he  seemed  to  have  abandoned,  and  speaks  of 
imitating  the  mechanism  of  Nature  as  if  he  had  forgotten 
the  spiritual  essence  of  the  heart  and  mind  of  man. 

But  his  real  thought  is  clearly  seen  in  the  following 
extract : 

"  The  mechanism  of  Nature  is  everywhere  sublime,  but 
simple.  Imitate  it,  oh  man  !  Imitate  Nature,  that  from  the 
seed  of  the  greatest  tree  produces  nothing  at  first  but  a 
scarcely  perceptible  growth,  which,  slowly  and  insensibly 
increasing  from  day  to  day,  and  hour  to  hour,  gradually 
develops  into  trunk,  branches,  twigs,  and  leaves. 

"  Observe  carefully  how  Nature  protects  and  strengthens 
each  new  part  as  it  is  developed,  that  it  may  serve  in  its  turn 
as  the  source  of  still  further  development. 

"  Observe  how  the  flower  only  develops  after  having  been 
formed  in  the  heart  of  the  bud,  how  the  beauty  of  its  first 
days  soon  passes  away,  giving  place  to  the  fruit,  as  yet  a 
feeble  growth,  but  already  perfect  in  its  essential  features, 
and  how  for  months  this  fruit,  hanging  to  the  branch  which 
nourishes  it,  grows  and  develops  till  at  last  ripe  and  perfected 
it  falls  from  the  tree. 

"  Observe  how  Nature  no  sooner  lifts  the  first  shoot  above 
the  ground  than  it  sends  forth  the  first  germ  of  the  root, 
and  gradually  carries  deep  into  the  bosom  of  the  earth  the 
noblest  part  of  the  tree  ;  how  by  a  subtle  process  it  develops 
the  motionless  trunk  from  the  heart  of  the  root,  the  branches 
from  the  heart  of  the  trunk,  and  the  twigs  from  the  heart 
of  the  branches ;  how,  to  each  part,  no  matter  how  weak  or 
how  insignificant,  it  supplies  the  necessary  nourishment,  yet 
nothing  useless,  inappropriate,  or  superfluous." 

Under  the  name  of  the  mechanism  of  Nature,  it  is  evidently 
the  vegetable  organism  that  Pestalozzi  is  here  describing  and 
proposing  as  a  model  for  the  educator.  We  may  conclude, 
therefore,  that  whenever,  in  talking  of  education,  he  speaks 
of  mechanism,  it  is  organism  that  he  means  us  to  understand. 
That  the  mind  and  the  heart  of  man,  no  less  than  his  body, 
develop  according  to  organic  laws,  is  indeed  the  fundamental 
principle  of  Pestalozzi's  doctrine,  as  we  shall  see  still  more 
clearly  presently.  The  important  document  we  have  been 
quoting,  concludes  as  follows  : 
14 


186          PESTALOZZI:  HIS  LIFE  AND    WORK. 

"  Do  not,  oh  man,  neglect  the  great  psychological  law  bj- 
which  the  nearness  or  distance  of  objects  determines  their 
positive  effect  on  your  impressions  and  development.  The 
child  who  goes  miles  in  search  of  a  tree  that  grows  before 
his  door  will  never  learn  to  know  trees.  The  child  who  finds 
nothing  worthy  of  attention  in  his  home  will  not  easily  find 
anything  to  interest  him  in  the  whole  world,  nor  will  he  who 
is  not  moved  to  love  by  his  mother's  eyes  be  moved  to  kindli- 
ness by  the  tears  of  men,  though  he  should  roam  the  world 
over.  Man  becomes  good  when  he  listens  to  the  calls  to 
virtue  and  wisdom  made  on  him  by  his  immediate  surround- 
ings ;  he  becomes  the  opposite  when,  neglecting  these,  he 
seeks  others  in  distant  lands. 

"  Nature  has  two  principal  and  general  means  of  directing 
human  activity  towards  the  cultivation  of  the  arts,  and  these 
should  be  employed,  if  not  before,  at  least  side  by  side  with 
any  particular  means.  They  are  singing  and  the  sense  of  the 
beautiful,  The  mother  lulls  her  child  with  her  song,  though 
here,  as  in  everything  else,  we  do  not  follow  the  law  of 
Nature.  Before  the  child  is  a  year  old,  the  mother's  song 
ceases ;  by  that  time  she  is,  as  a  rule,  no  longer  entirely 
a  mother  for  the  child,  who  is  already  forgetting  his  first 
impressions ;  indeed  for  him,  as  for  everybody  else,  she  is 
often  little  more  than  a  busy,  overburdened  woman.  Ah ! 
why  should  it  be  thus  ?  Why  has  not  the  progress  of  the 
arts  during  so  many  centuries  been  able  to  find  something 
to  carry  on  the  work  of  these  lullabies  in  after  life  ?  Why 
has  it  not  yet  given  us  a  series  of  national  songs  capable  of 
elevating  the  very  humblest  souls  and  leading  from  the 
simple  cradle  melody  to  the  sublime  hymn  of  praise  to  God  ? 
I  am  incapable  of  supplying  the  want,  alas !  I  can  only  call 
attention  to  it. 

"And  it  is  the  same  with  the  sense  of  the  beautiful. 
Nature  is  full  of  lovely  sights,  yet  Europe  has  done  nothing 
either  to  awaken  in  the  poor  a  sense  for  these  beauties,  or  to 
arrange  them  in  such  a  wray  as  to  produce  a  series  of  im- 
pressions capable  of  developing  this  sense.  In  vain  does  the 
sun  rise  and  set;  in  vain  do  forest,  meadow,  mountain,  and 
valley  spread  their  innumerable  wonders  before  our  eyes  ;  all 
this  is  nothing  to  us. 

"  And  here  again  I  can  do  nothing.  But  if  ever  popular 
education  should  cease  to  be  the  barbarous  absurdity  it  now 


PESTALOZZI  AT  BURGDORF.  187 

is,  and  put  itself  into  harmony  with  the  real  needs  of  our 
nature,  this  want  will  be  supplied. 

"  Nature  does  much  for  humanity,  but  we  have  forsaken 
3  ts  path.  The  poor  especially  are  far  removed  from  its  life- 
giving  springs.  I  have  seen  that  this  is  so,  and  in  all  my 
experience  I  have  not  seen  that  it  was  ever  otherwise. 
Hence  the  need  which  impels  me  not  merely  to  remedy 
obvious  defects,  but  to  get  to  the  very  root  of  the  educational 
evil  which  in  Europe  is  destroying  the  most  numerous  class 
of  the  population. 

"  I  know  what  I  am  doing.  But  neither  the  difficulties  of 
the  undertaking  nor  the  inadequacy  of  my  means  can  prevent 
my  bringing  my  grain  of  sand  for  the  construction  of  the 
building  of  which  Europe  stands  so  much  in  need.  And, 
gentlemen,  in  offering  you  the  results  of  the  labours  which 
have  absorbed  my  life,  I  ask  you  but  one  thing,  and  it  is 
this :  that  in  examining  my  ideas  you  will  rigidly  separate 
anything  that  seems  doubtful  from  what  you  feel  to  be 
incontestably  true." 

During  this  summer  of  1800,  Pestalozzi  did  not  obtain 
in  his  higher  class  so  much  success  as  had  crowned  his  efforts 
in  the  lower  class  the  winter  before.  It  will  be  remembered 
that  Ramsauer  admits  that  "  most  of  his  pupils  gave  him  a 
very  great  deal  of  trouble."  Stapfer,  too,  states  that  the 
old  man's  appearance  and  manners  often  compromised  his 
authority  in  his  class,  and  to  such  a  degree  that  the  prefect 
Schnell  was  obliged  to  intervene. 

It  could  hardly  be  otherwise.  Pestalozzi's  method  was  at 
that  time  exclusively  and  excessively  elementary ;  it  dealt 
with  human  knowledge  in  its  first  and  simplest  principles ; 
it  was  only  fit,  in  fact,  for  quite  young  beginners.  It  was 
therefore  almost  impossible  to  apply  it  to  scholars  who  for 
many  years  had  been  taught  on  a  totally  different  method. 
Indeed,  as  these  young  people  thought  themselves  already 
tolerably  well  educated,  these  simple,  childish  exercises,  far 
from  interesting  them,  only  served  to  wound  their  vanity. 
The  same  thing  happened  again  afterwards,  and  the  work 
which  had  been  so  successful  at  the  Burgdorf  institute  had 
much  less  success  at  Yverdun. 

Whilst  Pestalozzi  was  thus  teaching  in  the  second  class  in 
Burgdorf,  he  was  also  endeavouring,  with  Stapfer's  help,  to 


188          PESTALOZZI:  HIS  LIFE  AND    WORK. 

find  some  new  sphere  of  activity,  for  he  felt  that  the  excessive 
labour  his  work  necessitated  was  wearing  him  out. 

The  Helvetian  Directory,  that  had  looked  so  favourably 
upon  Pestalozzi's  educational  schemes,  had  been  replaced,  on 
the  7th  of  January,  1800,  by  an  Executive  Commission  of 
seven  members.  On  the  18th  of  the  following  February, 
Stapfer  had  addressed  to  this  Commission  a  report  drawn  up 
in  French,  in  which,  after  again  calling  attention  to  Pesta- 
lozzi's views  and  the  success  of  his  teaching  at  Burgdorf,  he 
continued : 

"  It  would  be  unpardonable  of  the  Helvetian  Govern- 
ment not  to  use  the  talents  of  this  remarkable  man  for  the 
benefit  of  the  country,  and  not  to  turn  to  advantage  the 
virtues  of  an  old  man  whose  ardour  to  alleviate  the  suffer- 
ings of  his  fellow-creatures  has  not  been  quenched  by  years, 
and  whose  heart,  even  in  the  winter  of  his  life,  is  still 
eager  to  be  useful,  and  still  burns  with  the  sacred  love  of 
humanity." 

He  finishes  by  asking,  in  Pestalozzi's  name,  for  permission 
to  publish  his  writings,  and  for  a  loan  of  some  seventy 
pounds,  to  be  devoted  partly  to  the  expenses  of  printing  the 
elementary  books  at  which  he  was  working,  partly  to  the 
foundation  of  a  special  educational  establishment ;  lastly, 
with  a  view  to  the  building  which  would  be  necessary,  he 
asks  for  a  free  gift  of  two  hundred  trees  from  the  national 
forests  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Neuhof.  For  security  Pesta- 
lozzi  offered  to  deposit  his  manuscripts,  valued  by  certain 
impartial  publishers  at  about  seventy  pounds,  and  undertook 
to  devote  to  the  new  establishment  all  profits  from  the  sale 
of  his  works,  and,  according  to  his  means,  to  receive  poor 
children  free  of  charge. 

The  Executive  Commission  had  on  the  25th  of  February 
decided  to  advance  the  money  on  condition  that  Pestalozzi 
should  pay  them  back  as  soon  as  his  institution  enabled  him 
to  do  so,  and  it  had  asked  the  legislative  councils  to  confirm 
this  decision.  It  had,  however,  refused  the  trees  for  build, 
ing,  on  the  ground  that  the  forests  in  Aargau  were  in  a  very 
bad  condition,  but  it  had  offered  to  supply  him  with  weed 
from  another  part  of  Switzerland  instead.  Pestalozzi  ex- 
pressed his  thanks  in  the  following  letter : 


PESTALOZZ1  AT  BVRGDORF.  189 

"  Citizen  Councillors  of  State, — 

"  Till  now  I  had  feared  that  I  should  die  without  having 
received  any  help  from  my  country  towards  the  one  great 
end  of  my  life.  You  can  judge  then  how  your  decision,  by 
removing  this  fear,  has  restored  my  courage  and  filled  my 
heart  with  gratitude. 

"  With  respect  and  patriotic  fidelity, 

ii  "Pp'OT*  A  T  O77T 

"  Burgdorf,  the  Qth  of  March,  1800." 

The  extremely  unsatisfactory  state  of  the  finances  of  the 
Republic,  however,  interfered  with  the  carrying  out  of  the 
decision.  Even  afterwards,  when  Pestalozzi  had  really 
founded  and  put  into  working  order  the  Burgdorf  institute, 
he  only  received  twenty-three  pounds  from  the  State  purse 
for  the  first  year,  fifteen  of  which  were  to  go  towards  the 
expenses  of  printing  his  first  elementary  book,  How  to  Teach 
Spelling  and  Heading.  Moreover,  the  refusal  of  wood  at 
Neuhof  had  interfered  with  Pestalozzi's  plans,  and  compelled 
him  to  postpone  their  execution.  He  was  therefore  obliged 
to  go  on  with  his  fatiguing  work  in  his  class ;  but  his  chest 
was  not  strong  enough  to  bear  the  violent  strain  he  put  upon 
it  from  morning  till  night,  and  he  was  soon  as  ill  as  he  had 
been  at  Stanz.  It  was  about  this  time  that  he  wrote  as  follows 
to  his  friend  Zschokke  : 

"  For  thirty  years  my  life  has  been  a  well-nigh  hopeless 
struggle  against  the  most  frightful  poverty.  .  .  .  For 
thirty  years  I  have  had  to  forego  many  of  the  barest  neces- 
saries of  life,  and  have  had  to  shun  the  society  of  my  fellow- 
men  from  sheer  lack  of  decent  clothes.  Many  and  many  a 
time  have  I  gone  without  a  dinner,  and  eaten  in  bitterness 
a  dry  crust  of  bread  on  the  road,  at  a  time  when  even  the 
poorest  were  seated  round  a  table.  All  this  I  have  suffered, 
and  am  still  suffering  to-day,  and  with  no  other  object  than 
the  realization  of  my  plans  for  helping  the  poor." 

Once  more  disappointed  in  his  hopes,  Pestalozzi  saw  his 
life  and  strength  apparently  wasted,  and  his  most  cherished 
schemes  on  the  point  of  being  ruined  for  ever,  when,  happily 
for  humanity,  Providence  came  to  his  rescue  by  sending  him 
a  helper  in  every  way  worthy  of  him,  such  a  man,  indeed, 
as  he  never  expected  to  find — Hermann  Krusi. 


CHAPTER  X. 

KRUSI,  PESTALOZZfS   FIRST    FELLOW-WORKEB. 

Outer  Appensell  and  its  inhabitants.  How  Krusi  the  carrier 
became  a  schoolmaster.  Eastern  Sivitzerland  ruined  by  the 
war.  Krusi  takes  twenty-eight  poor  children  to  Burgdorf. 
Fischer  employs  Krusi  in  a  training-school  in  Burgdorf 
Castle.  Death  of  Fischer.  Krusi  joins  PestalozzL 

THE  village  of  Gais,  in  which,  in  1775,  Hermann  Krusi  was 
born,  is  situated  in  one  of  the  upper  valleys  of  the  canton  of 
Appenzell.  This  district  is  one  of  the  most  remarkable  in 
Switzerland,  not  so  much  perhaps  for  its  beautiful  scenery  as 
for  the  manners,  industry,  character,  and  natural  intelligence 
of  its  inhabitants.  It  has  produced  not  a  few  distinguished 
men,  and  it  supplied  Pestalozzi  with  several  of  his  best  col- 
laborators. 

There  is  very  little  arable  land  in  the  country,  which  is 
exceedingly  hilly,  but  its  valleys  and  heights  are  thickly 
wooded,  and  its  well-kept  pastures  always  fresh  and  green. 
Its  fruit-trees,  too,  are  very  numerous,  and  of  a  small,  hardy 
sort,  suited  to  the  harsh  climate.  Milk,  butter,  dried  fruit, 
and  cider  are  its  chief  products,  but  these  alone  would  not 
suffice  either  to  feed  or  occupy  the  inhabitants,  whose  com- 
fort and  prosperity  are  owing  rather  to  the  manufacture 
of  stuffs,  embroideries,  and  especially  muslins,  an  industry 
which  has  long  been  associated  with  agriculture.  There  is 
scarcely  a  house  in  the  district,  indeed,  but  has  its  cattle- 
shed  and  work-room. 

Krusi  did  not  get  much  schooling,  for  his  father,  a  poor 
shopkeeper,  soon  required  his  help  at  home.  What  he  did 
get  was  probably  worth  very  little,  for  the  school  at  Gais, 
like  most  of  the  schools  at  that  time,  was  of  little  real  value. 
The  children  were  called  up  one  by  one  to  say  their  lesson, 
and  for  the  rest  of  the  time  were  left  inactive.  Their  work 
consisted  of  spelling,  and  reading,  and  repeating  the  catechism, 


PESTALOZZPS  FIRST  FELLOW-WORKER.     191 

only  a  few  of  the  elder  ones  being  taught  to  write.  If  little 
Hermann  ever  learnt  anything  there,  it  was  soon  forgotten, 
for  at  twelve  years  of  age  he  was  going  about  the  district  for 
his  father  from  village  to  village,  entirely  ignorant  of  the 
things  generally  taught  in  school. 

But  the  child  was  sharp  and  observant,  and  passionately 
fond  of  study ;  and  though  he  had  to  work  hard  for  a  living, 
he  still  found  time  for  self-improvement.  As  his  father  sent 
him  to  make  sales  or  purchases  in  the  different  villages,  he 
often  found  himself  the  bearer  of  considerable  sums  of  money ; 
and  as  he  had  to  keep  a  strict  account  of  this  money,  he 
gradually  taught  himself  to  count.  He  learned  at  the  same 
time  to  distinguish  the  various  qualities  of  different  sorts  of 
goods.  He  was  in  the  habit,  too,  of  botanizing  as  he  went 
along,  and  so  became  familiar  with  the  names  and  characters 
of  the  most  useful  plants.  He  had,  besides,  that  deep  appre- 
ciation of  Nature  which  is  so  rare  amongst  those  whose  daily 
struggles  for  a  living  leave  them  little  or  no  real  leisure.  To 
his  admiration  for  the  beauties  of  his  country 1  was  joined  a 
fervent  inborn  piety,  which,  even  amid  his  mercantile  pursuits, 
always  held  the  first  place  in  his  simple,  pure,  and  loving 
heart. 

Hermann  Krusi  was  eighteen  years  old  when  a  chance 
encounter  resulted  in  his  taking  up  teaching,  work  for  which 
he  was  eminently  fitted,  but  of  which  he  would  probably 
never  have  thought  had  not  the  idea  been  suggested  to  him. 
Here,  for  a  moment,  we  must  let  him  speak  for  himself,  for  it 
was  from  his  own  lips  that  we  first  heard  the  story : 

*  A  very  good  general  view  of  the  country  is  to  be  had  from  the  top 
of  the  Gabris,  which  lies  to  the  north  of  the  village  of  Gais,  and  cau 
be  reached  in  rather  less  than  an  hour.  At  this  height,  hills  and  woods 
lie  stretched  out  below,  and  between  them  the  numerous  villages,  with 
their  large  painted  houses  of  carved  wood,  and  their  high,  red  church 
Bteeples.  To  the  south  the  view  extends  to  the  mountains  of  the  Catholic 
canton  of  Inner  Appenzell,  no  longer  connected  with  Outer  Appenzell, 
which,  on  embracing  the  reform,  was  made  into  a  separate  half-canton. 
The  glaciers  of  the  Sentis  crown  this  side  of  the  picture.  To  the  east 
lies  the  Rhine  valley,  with  the  river  winding  like  a  silver  ribbon ;  be.yond 
are  the  Austrian  Alps  of  the  Vorarlberg.  To  the  north  is  the  plain  of 
Thnrgau,  so  thickly  covered  with  fine  trees  as  to  be  like  an  immense 
orchard.  On  this  side  the  view  is  bounded  by  the  lake  of  Constance,  and 
beyond  the  lake,  as  ar  as  the  eye  can  reach,  by  the  mountains  of  the 
Black  Forest. 


192          PESTALOZZI:  HIS  LIFE  AND   WORK 

"  One  hot  summer's  day  I  was  crossing  the  Gabris  on  my 
way  back  from  Trogen  with  a  heavy  load  of  thread.  It  was 
just  at  the  top  of  the  mountain  where  the  path  changes  its 
direction  that  my  thoughts  and  my  life  also  changed  theirs. 
I  had  set  down  my  pack  to  wipe  my  forehead,  when  I  was 
met  by  Mr.  Gruber,  at  that  time  State  Treasurer,  who  recog- 
nized me. 

"  '  It's  very  hot,  Hermann,'  he  said. 

"  '  Yes,  very  hot.' 

"  '  As  Hoerlen,  the  schoolmaster,  is  leaving  Gais,  you  might 
perhaps  earn  your  living  without  working  quite  so  hard. 
Wouldn't  you  like  to  try  for  his  place  ? ' 

"  '  It  isn't  merely  a  question  of  what  I  should  like.  A 
schoolmaster  must  know  things  of  which  I  am  entirely 
ignorant.' 

"  '  At  your  age  you  could  easily  learn  all  that  we  expect  a 
village  schoolmaster  to  know.' 

" '  But  where  and  how  ?  I  see  no  possibility  of  such  a 
thing.' 

" '  A  way  will  easily  be  found  if  you  would  like  to  do  it. 
Think  about  it,  and  lose  no  time.' 

"  Whereupon  he  left  me. 

"  I  thought  and  thought,  but  could  not  see  how  it  was  to 
be  done.  However,  I  rapidly  descended  the  mountain,  hardly 
conscious  of  my  load. 

"  My  friend  Sonderegger  procured  me  a  specimen  of  writing 
from  a  clever  caligraphist,  of  Altstatten,  which  I  copied  more 
than  a  hundred  times.  This  was  my  only  preparation.  Never- 
theless, I  sent  in  my  name,  though  with  little  hope  of  suc- 
ceeding. 

"  There  was  only  one  other  candidate.  The  chief  test  was 
to  write  the  Lord's  Prayer,  which  I  did  with  the  greatest 
care. 

"  I  had  noticed  that  capital  letters  were  used  here  and  there, 
but  I  knew  nothing  of  the  rules,1  and  took  them  for  an  orna- 
ment. I  accordingly  arranged  mine  symmetrically,  so  that 
some  of  them  came  even  in  the  middle  of  a  word.  The  fact 
is  that  we  neither  of  us  knew  anything. 

"  Soon  after  the  examination  was  over  I  was  sent  for,  and 
told  that  the  examiners  thought  us  both  very  weak ;  that  my 

1  In  German  all  nouns  are  written  with  a  capital  letter. 


PESTALOZZfS  FIRST  FELLOW-WORKER.     193 

rival  read  better  than  I  did.  but  that  my  writing  was  better 
than  his  ;  that  as  I  was  only  eighteen,  whereas  he  was  forty, 
I  could  more  easily  acquire  the  necessary  knowledge ;  that, 
moreover,  my  room,  being  bigger  than  his,  was  more  suitable 
for  a  schoolroom;  and,  lastly,  that  I  was  appointed  to  the 
vacant  post." 

Krusi's  room  was  therefore  cleared  of  some  old  furniture  to 
make  room  for  the  hundred  children  who  formed  the  school. 
This  was  in  1793. 

There  he  was,  then,  with  a  hundred  children  in  his  room, 
much  perplexed  as  to  how  to  keep  them  in  order,  how  to 
occupy  them,  and  how  to  teach  them.  Another  man,  in  his 
place,  would  have  bethought  himself  of  what  was  done  in  the 
school  where  he  had  been  taught,  and  would  have  imitated 
his  former  master.  But  not  so  Krusi ;  he  had  been  attracted 
to  this  new  career  not  so  much  by  the  insignificant  salary  as 
by  the  opportunity  it  afforded  him  of  satisfying  his  passion 
for  study ;  he  knew  that  he  had  much  to  learn,  and  now, 
instead  of  trying  to  show  his  scholars  what  he  already  knew, 
he  set  himself  to  learn  with  them. 

He  was  much  helped  by  the  pastor  Schiess,  who,  struck 
by  the  vices  of  the  old  routine-system  of  the  primary  school, 
was  endeavouring  to  find  something  better  to  replace  it.  This 
worthy  man  gave  Krusi  his  personal  assistance  for  the  first 
eight  weeks.  The  children  were  divided  into  three  classes, 
and  every  effort  was  made  to  keep  them  constantly  occupied. 
A  new  reading-book  had  just  been  introduced  into  the  school, 
containing  Bible  stories  and  a  few  facts  of  geography  and 
natural  history.  The  children  were  questioned  on  what  they 
read  to  make  sure  that  they  had  thoroughly  understood. 

Krusi  worked  very  hard ;  he  was  very  happy  in  his  new 
position,  partly  because  he  was  gaining  knowledge,  but- chiefly 
because  he  really  loved  his  children.  He  cared  not  only  for 
their  future  welfare,  but  for  their  present  contentment.  He 
knew  how  necessary  activity  was  for  them,  and  he  did  all  he 
could  not  to  cause  them  a  moment's  weariness.  Amongst  the 
varied  exercises  of  his  class,  he  was  not  afraid  to  introduce 
the  personal  experiences  by  which  he  had  gained,  sometimes 
indeed  to  his  cost,  useful  knowledge  of  things  connected  with 
the  everyday  life  of  the  country,  and  so  he  often  talked  of 
weaving  and  cattle,  plants  and  merchandise,  to  the  great 


194          PESTALOZZI:  HIS  LIFE  AND    WORK. 

\  delight  of  the  children,  who  were  not  a  little  surprised  to 
hear  in  school  about  the  very  things  in  which  they  were  most 
interested. 

It  was  impossible  that  such  a  change  in  school  methods 
should  b<;  understood  and  approved  by  everybody.  It  excited, 
indeed,  considerable  opposition  in  the  district,  an  opposition 
which  became  stronger  after  the  Revolution  of  1798.  Krusi 
was  in  favour  of  the  new  order  of  things,  because  he  thought 
it  more  likely  than  the  old  to  encourage  work  amongst  the 
people,  and  the  development  of  public  instruction.  He  thus 
lost  the  goodwill  of  many  who  remained  faithful  to  the  old 
system. 

It  was  then  that,  thanks  to  a  combination  of  circumstances 
which  we  must  briefly  explain,  a  new  career  was  thrown  open 
to  him. 

Towards  the  end  of  last  century,  the  famous  pedagogical 
establishment  conducted  by  Salzmann  at  Schnepfenthal  had 
excited  in  the  minds  of  several  of  its  best  students  an  ardent 
desire  for  the  reform  and  progress  of  public  instruction. 
Amongst  them  was  a  young  Swiss,  called  Fischer, -who,  after 
completing  his  theological  studies,  had  obtained  a  post  of 
deputy-minister.  But  in  the  Revolution  of  1798  he  gave  up 
this  post  for  the  secretaryship  of  the  Science  and  Art  Depart- 
ment under  the  new  Swiss  Government. 

Fischer's  views,  like  those  of  Pestalozzi,  were  lofty,  generous, 
and  patriotic;  like  him,  he  felt  the  need  of  raising  the  schools 
of  Switzerland ;  but  it  was  by  the  foundation  of  a  normal 
school  that  he  sought  to  reach  his  end,  whereas  Pestalozzi 
was  anxious,  first  of  all,  to  apply  his  method  to  the  education 
of  poor  children. 

Fischer's  views  were  shared  by  the  minister  Stapfer,  who 
induced  the  Government  to  adopt  them.  The  state  of  the 
finances,  however,  did  not  admit  of  any  practical  steps  being 
taken,  and  the  Government  merely  promised  to  support 
Fischer  should  he  succeed  in  founding  a  normal  school,  and 
held  out  the  hope  that  it  might  perhaps  later  on  become  a 
State  institution. 

For  the  carrying  out  of  his  plans,  Fischer  had  chosen  the 
Castle  of  Burgdorf,  and  the  Government  had  granted  him  the 
use  of  a  certain  part  of  it.  The  future  director  accordingly 
went  and  settled  there.  He  was  well  received  by  the  inhabit- 
ants of  the  town,  who  entrusted  him  with  the  reorganization 


PESTALOZZPS  FIRST  FELLOW-WORKER.       195 

and  direction  of  their  schools,  a  work  into  which  he  threw 
himself  with  zeal,  whilst  waiting  for  an  opportunity  of  found- 
ing his  own  school. 

This  was  in  the  autumn  of  1799.  Disasters  like  that  of 
the  year  before  at  Stanz  had  just  overtaken  eastern  Switzer- 
land, where  the  war  that  the  French  were  carrying  on  against 
the  Austrians  and  Prussians  had  entirely  destroyed  the 
resources  of  the  country,  which  was  in  consequence  a  prey 
to  the  most  horrible  famine.  In  the  districts  of  the  Linth 
and  Sentis  especially  there  were  hundreds  of  mothers  with 
absolutely  nothing  to  give  their  children.  The  inhabitants 
of  those  parts  of  Switzerland  which  had  escaped  this  terrible 
scourge  were  moved  with  compassion,  and  took  the  children 
of  their  ruined  countrymen  into  their  homes  to  care  for  them, 
and  bring  them  up  as  their  own. 

The  chief  mover  in  this  generous  action  at  Burgdorf  was 

Fischer.     He  heard  so  much  sympathy  expressed  on  every 

side  that  in  the  month  of  December  he  wrote  to  his  friend 

Steinmuller,  of  Glarus,  then  pastor  of  Gais,  asking  him  to 

send  to  Burgdorf  thirty  poor  children,  for  whom  he  undertook 

to  find  comfortable  homes.   He  asked  further  that  they  should 

be  accompanied  by  a  young  man  capable  of  looking  after  them 

•.  and  fond  of  teaching,  whom  he  promised  to  train  himself  and 

•  turn  into  a  good  schoolmaster. 

Steinmuller  accordingly  set  off  as  soon  as  possible  for 
Glarus,  his  native  place,  which  was  the  district  that  had 
suffered  most.  But  eighty  poor  children  of  this  canton  had 
already  been  sent  away,  and,  by  the  kindness  of  the  Literary 
Society  of  Berne,  placed  in  homes  in  the  province  of  Vaud, 
then  the  canton  of  Leman,  not,  it  must  be  confessed,  with  the 
entire  approval  of  many  of  the  inhabitants  of  G-larus,  who 
traced  all  their  misfortunes  to  the  action  of  the  people  of  Vaud 
in  calling  in  the  French. 

On  his  return  to  Gais,  Steinmuller  announced  to  his 
parishioners  that  he  could  place  a  certain  number  of  children 
in  comfortable  homes  in  the  canton  of  Berne,  and  such  was 
the  state  of  distress  in  the  country  that  the  very  first  day  he 
had  no  less  than  forty  applications. 

He  proposed  to  Krusi  that  he  should  accompany  the  emi- 
grant children,  pointing  out  to  him  the  advantnge  it  would 
be  to  be  instructed  by  Fischer,  perhaps  even  by  Pestalozzi. 
Although  the  latter  was  already  very  famous,  the  young 


196          PESTALOZZI:  HIS  LIFE  AND    WORK. 

schoolmaster  had  never  heard  of  him,  but  he  unhesitatingly 
accepted  the  offer,  being  eager  to  proceed  with  his  own  educa- 
tion, and  cultivate  his  talent  for  teaching. 

In  the  letter  he  wrote  to  Fischer,  on  the  16th  of  January, 
1800,  Steinmiiller  speaks  of  Krusi  in  the  following  terms  : 

"  I  have  found  the  man  I  wanted,  and  hope  he  will  satisfy 
you.  He  is  twenty-four  years  old,  has  nothing  but  what  he 
earns,  is  willing,  docile,  and  energetic ;  he  already  possesses 
a  fair  amount  of  that  sort  of  knowledge  which  is  most  useful 
for  a  schoolmaster,  and  has  an  ardent  love  for  his  profession. 
He  is  certain  to  meet  with  considerable  success.  His  character 
is  blameless.  His  name  is  Hermann  Krusi,  and  he  is  one  of 
my  parishioners  and  schoolmasters.  He  is  very  anxious  to 
come  to  you,  knowing  how  much  he  has  to  gain  from  you  and 
Pestalozzi.  If  he  should  not  suit  you,  he  can  come  back 
here." 

On  the  21st  of  January,  1800,  Krusi  left  Gais  with  twenty- 
eight  children  of  both  sexes.  He  has  left  us  a  few  details  of 
the  journey,  which  show  with  what  sympathy  the  little  band 
was  everywhere  received : 

"  At  Winterthur,  whilst  we  were  taking  some  food  that 
had  been  provided  for  us,  the  excellent  pastor  Hanhart  came 
in.  On  hearing  the  reason  of  our  journey,  he  hurried  out 
and  soon  came  back  with  a  little  money,  which,  in  his  zeal, 
he  had  collected,  and  which  he  gave  us  with  his  blessing  and 
best  wishes  for  our  welfare. 

"  At  Bassersdorf,  where  we  arrived  somewhat  late,  we  had 
to  go  to  the  inns.  All  the  beds  were  taken,  however,  on 
account  of  the  fair  at  Zurich,  so  we  were  put  into  some  big 
rooms  covered  with  straw.  The  tribunal  of  the  district  hap- 
pened to  be  sitting  in  the  town,  and  its  president  made  a 
collection  for  us,  and  himself  brought  us  the  proceeds,  with 
his  bcsb  wishes  for  a  prosperous  journey." 

On  the  27th  of  January  the  little  band  arrived  at  Burgdorf , 
a,nd  the  children  were  placed  with  different  families  in  the 
neighbourhood.  A  room  was  found  for  Krusi  in  the  Castle, 
where  Fischer  and  Pestalozzi  were  already  living,  and  meals 
were  provided  for  him  in  the  house  of  one  of  the  towns- 
people 


PESTALOZZrS  FIRST  FELLOW-WORKER.       197 

This  emigration  of  the  poor  children  of  the  small  cantons 
into  other  parts  of  Switzerland  is  a  striking  fact  in  connection 
with  those  troublous  times.  The  distress  which  induced  so 
many  parents  to  part  with  their  children  must  have  been  great 
indeed  ;  we  cannot  but  admire  the  generous  sympathy  of  those 
who  received  them  into  their  homes. 

The  number  of  children  thus  provided  for  was  very  great 
In  the  beginning  of  February,  1800,  a  second  party  of  forty- 
four,  from  ten  to  fourteen  years  old,  was  despatched  from 
Appenzell.  One  of  the  youngest  of  these  was  John  Ramsauer, 
to  whom  we  have  already  referred.  In  his  memoirs  he  has 
left  us  a  curious  account  of  this  journey,  from  which  we  quote 
the  following  passage : 

"  We  journeyed  in  two  open  waggons.  The  treatment  we 
received  at  the  different  places  we  stopped  at  depended, 
more  or  less,  upon  the  political  opinions  of  the  people  of  the 
place.  I  noticed  that  it  was  always  the  poorest,  the  most 
neglected,  and  the  most  ignorant  children  who  were  the 
loudest  in  their  complaints;  whilst  those  who  had  been 
accustomed  to  a  certain  degree  of  comfort,  or  had  had  a  little 
education,  cheerfully  accepted  the  hardships  of  their  position.1 
Our  first  stopping-place  was  at  Wyl,  in  the  canton  of  Thur- 
gau;  it  was  late,  and  snowing  fast,  and  we  were  obliged 
to  wander  about  for  a  long  time  with  lanterns  looking  for  our 
night  quarters ;  I  slept  with  two  other  children  in  a  very 
humble  house ;  we  went  to  bed  without  supper,  and  our  room 
kept  out  neither  wind  nor  snow.  At  Zurich,  which  was  full 
of  foreign  soldiers,  we  foxuid  no  other  shelter  but  a  hospital, 
with  straw  for  beds.  Most  of  the  children  did  nothing  but 
complain  the  whole  night  long,  and  the  next  morning  many 
of  them  were  quite  ill.  At  Morgenthal,  in  the  canton  of 
Berne,  nobody  would  take  us  in,  and  we  had  to  go  on  through 
the  night  for  some  miles  till  we  found  refuge  in  a  lonely 
cottage  already  full  of  soldiers  and  camp  followers.  Gene- 
rally, however,  we  were  treated  with  kindness  and  consider- 


1  The  spoiled  children  of  rich  parents,  had  there  been  any,  would 
probably  have  complained  louder  even  than  the  poor.  Eamsauer's 
remark  shows  the  advantage,  from  an  educational  point  of  view,  of  thosa 
modest  but  happy  homes  where  comfort  is  the  outcome  of  labour. 
Aurea  mediocritai ! 


198          PESTALOZZI :  HIS  LIFE  A.\D    WORK. 

ation.  We  were  never  tired  of  talking  of  the  warm  welcome 
we  received  at  Lenzburg,  where  we  were  so  well  lodged,  and 
at  Suhr,  where  we  had  such  a  good  dinner. 

"Our  destination  was  Oberburg,  about  three  miles  to  the 
south  of  Burgdorf.  It  took  us  a  week  to  reach  it.  On  our 
arrival  we  were  drawn  up  in  a  public  square,  and  exhibited 
to  the  generous  people  who  had  agreed  to  adopt  us.  The 
richer  people  chose  the  prettiest  children  ;  the  peasants  took 
the  healthiest  and  strongest.  Fifteen,  myself  among  the 
number,  were  not  chosen  by  anybody.  We  were  therefore 
sent  off  to  Schleumen,  a  little  to  the  west  of  Burgdorf.  There, 
once  more  ranged  in  order,  we  were  awaiting  our  fate,  when 
a  lady,  who  had  promised  to  take  two  children,  came  out 
of  a  pretty  house  to  examine  us.  All  the  rest  were  gloomy 
and  silent,  but  I  turned  and  cried  merrily,  '  I  know  how 
old  that  house  is!'  The  date  was  over  the  door.  My 
quickness  pleased  the  lady,  and  she  took  me  and  one  of  my 
companions  home  with  her.  The  others  were  taken  to  the 
village  of  Hindelbank." 

Not  long  afterwards  the  same  small  district  of  Appenzell 
sent  away  a  third,  and  even  a  fourth  party  of  children. 
Nor  were  they  sent  merely  from  Grlarus,  but  from  Uri, 
Schwyz,  Unterwalden,  Zug,  and  Saint  Grallen,  and  they  were 
received  in  every  part  of  Western  Switzerland,  from  Basle 
to  Geneva. 

ILrusi  now  settled  at  Burgdorf,  and  continued  to  teach 
the  children  he  had  brought  with  him,  for  all  of  whom 
homes  had  been  found  somewhere  in  the  town  or  neighbour- 
hood. When  the  School  Commission  was  asked  what  he 
was  to  be  paid,  they  replied : 

"  The  schoolmaster  Krusi,  besides  continuing  to  instruct 
the  children  of  his  native  parish,  as  he  was  in  the  habit  of 
doing  at  home,  is  ready  to  take  other  pupils.  He  is  entitled 
to  charge  four  shillings  a  month  for  any  lessons  given  out- 
side the  school  ;  but  as  we  do  not  wish  to  impose  an 
additional  burden  upon  the  generous  people  who  have 
adopted  these  poor  children,  we  must  leave  those  who  wish 
to  make  him  some  return  to  fix  the  amount  for  themselves." 

Pestalozzi,  Fischer,  and  Krusi  lived  together,  not  only  in 
perfect  sympathy,  but  in  perfe'.  t  harmony.  Pestalozzi  and 


PESTALOZZrS  FIRST  FELLOW-WORKER.       199 

Fischer,  although  their  views  were  not  in  every  respect 
identical,  loved  and  esteemed  each  other  very  highly.  It 
was  Fischer,  however,  who  by  his  lessons,  his  example,  and 
his  advice,  exercised  the  greatest  influence  on  Krusi's  work. 
In  April,  1800,  as  the  opportunity  for  founding  a  normal 
school  did  not  arrive,  Fischer,  unable  to  wait  any  longer, 
accepted  a  post  at  Berne,  where  he  was  appointed  professor 
of  philosophy  and  pedagogy,  with  a  seat  on  the  Council  of 
Education. 

Krusi  felt  his  loss  very  much,  but  endeavoured  to  make 
up  for  it  by  going  to  Berne  every  Sunday  to  receive  advice, 
and  render  an  account  of  the  week's  work. 

Before  long,  however,  Fischer  fell  ill  and  died.  It  was 
Pestalozzi  who  brought  Krusi  the  sad  news,  and  he  proposed 
that  they  should  unite  their  schools,  and  pursue  together 
their  common  work. 

Krusi  unhesitatingly  accepted,  for  he  had  already  learned 
to  understand  Pestalozzi,  and  to  see  the  importance  of  his 
educational  views,  which  were  similar  in  many  respects  to 
the  opinions  at  which,  in  the  course  of  his  self-instruction, 
he  had  himself  arrived. 

And  thus  Pestalozzi  found  the  very  collaborator  he  was 
in  need  of,  a  man,  that  is,  who  was  warm-hearted,  intelli- 
gent, energetic,  and  devoted  to  teaching,  and  at  the  same 
time  entirely  free  from  routine  and  old-fashioned  prejudices. 
Krusi  differed  also  from  most  other  teachers  in  underrating 
his  own  attainments.  He  remained  with  Pestalozzi  till  the 
decay  of  the  Yverdun  institute,  successfully  teaching  the 
various  elementary  subjects,  and  winning  especial  distinction 
for  his  lessons  in  language  and  natural  history. 

His  old  pupils  will  always  remember  him  with  affection  : 
the  fine,  dignified  head  ;  the  high,  open  forehead  and  curjy 
hair;  the  kind,  intelligent  ej'es  ;  and,  above  all,  the  never- 
changing,  expression  of  gentleness,  simplicity,  and  goodwill. 
It  was  he  especially  that  we  liked  to  have  for  our  guide  in 
our  mountain  walks  and  excursions  at  Yverdun,  when  he 
would  look  after  those  of  us  who  were  small  and  weak 
not  only  like  a  father,  but  with  all  the  care  of  the  tenderest 
mother. 

Whilst  at  Yverdun,  Krusi  married  an  under-mistress  in 
Niederer's  school,  a  lady  in  every  respect  worthy  of  him. 
Af*er  the  fall  of  Pestalozzi's  establishment,  he  went  back 


200          PESTALOZZI:    HIS  LIFE  AND    WORK. 

to  his  native  place,  where  he  was  entrusted  first  with  the 
direction  of  the  district  school  at  Trogen,  then  with  that  of 
the  normal  school  at  Grais.  It  was  at  the  latter  place  that 
in  October,  1837,  we  had  the  pleasure  of  seeing  our  old 
master  again,  and  spending  some  days  with  him. 

He  had  acquired  a  large  house  situated  a  little  above  the 
village  at  the  foot  of  the  Gabris.  He  and  his  family  occupied 
the  first  floor ;  on  the  second,  his  eldest  daughter,  a  pupil 
of  Mrs.  Niederer's,  conducted  a  school  for  girls,  and  on  the 
ground  floor  was  the  class-room  of  his  training  students,  who 
lived,  however,  in  the  village.  Next  to  the  class-room  was 
a  model  primary  school,  where  Krusi  taught  the  grand- 
children of  many  who  had  been  his  pupils  forty-four  years 
before.  He  was  now  sixty-two  years  old;  it  was  twenty 
years  since  we  had  left  him,  and  he  was  scarcely  altered. 
His  energy  seemed  no  whit  abated.  Lessons,  games,  walks, 
everything  was  the  better  for  his  goodness,  ardour,  and 
simple  piety,  which  filled  the  house  with  harmony  and  joy, 
and  encouraged  earnestness  in  thought  and  work. 


CHAPTER  XL 

PESTALOZZl'S   INSTITUTE  AT  BURGDORP. 

Pestalozzi  and  Krusi  unite  their  Schools  in  Burgdorf  Castle. 
Tobler,  Buss,  and  Naef  join  them.  Appreciation  of  the 
new  institution  by  the  Society  of  the  Friends  of  Education. 
Great  success  of  the  school.  Its  reputation  in  other 
countries.  Visitors  of  note.  The  Government  appoints  a 
Commission  to  examine  it.  Official  reports.  The  Petty 
Council  decides  to  convert  it  into  a  training  college  for 
Switzerland.  Counter-revolution  in  Switzerland.  Pesta- 
lozzi  deputed  to  attend  the  Consulta  in  Paris.  Bona- 
parte and  the  Pestalozzian  method.  The  Bernese  Govern- 
ment resumes  possession  of  Burgdorf  Castle.  Pestalozzi's 
institute  transferred  first  to  Munchenbuchsee,  then  to 
Yverdun. 

PESTALOZZI  was  now  safe,  for  he  had  found  in  Krusi  a 
man  who  not  only  thoroughly  entered  into  his  ideas,  and 
eagerly  acted  on  his  suggestions,  but  who  had  besides 
the  strength  and  knowledge  of  the  world  that  he  himself 
lacked. 

To  unite  the  poor  refugees  from  Appenzell  with  the 
children  that  the  well-to-do  families  of  Burgdorf  had  en- 
trusted to  him,  Pestalozzi  had  need  of  much  more  room  than 
had  hitherto  sufficed  him.  Thanks  to  the  efforts  of  Stapfer, 
the  Executive  Council,  by  a  decree  of  the  23rd  of  July,  1800, 
granted  to  Pestalozzi  the  gratuitous  use  of  as  much  of  the 
castle  of  Burgdorf  as  was  necessary  for  his  purpose,  as 
well  as  that  of  a  certain  portion  of  the  garden.  They 
also  agreed  to  supply  him  with  a  considerable  quantity  of 
wood. 

The  two  little  schools  were  then  brought  together  in  the 
rooms  of  the  castle,  and  the  two  new  friends  began  their 
work  in  common. 

Krusi's  account  of  their  first  efforts  is  as  follows : 
]5 


202          PESTALOZZI:   HIS  LIFE  AND    WORK. 

"Pestalozzi  left  me  quite  free.  I  was  filled  with  admira- 
tion for  his  views,  his  work,  and  his  past  life.  I  felt  myself 
encouraged  by  his  trust,  and  was  proud  of  his  friendship. 
The  appearance  of  our  combined  schools  became  more  and 
more  satisfactory  every  day,  and  the  happiness  of  the 
children  and  their  eagerness  to  learn  soon  attracted  a  good 
deal  of  attention." 

Pestalozzi  himself  was  less  satisfied;  he  found  himself 
hampered  by  the  many  differences  of  age,  education,  charac- 
ter, habits,  and  origin  in  the  children  thus  united  under  his 
care.  He  felt  the  need,  too,  of  more  help,  not  only  for  his 
own  greater  freedom  of  action,  but  for  the  sake  of  his  ele- 
mentary instruction  books,  at  which  he  was  already  working, 
and  of  which  we  shall  have  to  say  something  further  on, 
though  neither  the  plan  nor  the  execution  was,  in  our  opinion, 
at  all  satisfactory. 

As  soon  as  the  summer  holidays  arrived,  Krusi  took  the 
opportunity  of  paying  a  visit  to  his  friend  and  compatriot, 
Tobler,  who  was  a  tutor  in  a  family  at  Basle,  and  who,  from 
his  correspondence  with  Eischer,  had  already  learned  to 
know  something  of  Pestalozzi.  Krusi  gave  him  an  account 
of  the  new  undertaking  at  Burgdorf  and  suggested  that  he 
should  take  part  in  it. 

Tobler  at  once  accepted.  He  had  talent  and  imagination, 
and  a  great  taste  for  study  and  teaching.  His  early  educa- 
tion had  been  much  neglected,  but  at  twenty-two  years  of 
age,  having  suddenly  decided  to  become  a  minister  of  the 
Gospel,  he  had  begun  to  work  seriously.  Obliged,  however, 
to  earn  his  own  living,  he  was  fortunate  enough  to  obtain  a 
tutorship  in  Basle  which  left  him  leisure  for  private  work. 
He  had  been  working  in  this  way  for  ten  years  with  unflag- 
ging perseverance,  when  he  became  acquainted  with  Pesta- 
lozzi. He  had  never  succeeded  to  his  own  satisfaction  in 
imparting  his  knowledge  to  his  pupils,  and  now  he  seemed 
to  see  in  this  man  the  very  power  that  he  himself  lacked. 
He  gladly  embraced  the  opportunity  of  working  with  him, 
and  hastened  to  Burgdorf. 

Pestalozzi  was  still  in  need  of  a  master  to  teach  drawing 
and  singing.  Tobler  recommended  him  a  young  man  named 
Buss,  who  was  at  that  time  apprenticed  to  a  bookbinder  in 
Basle. 


PESTALOZZTS  INSTITUTE  AT  BURGDORF.    203 

Buss  had  had  a  strange  existence.  His  father  was  em- 
ployed in  the  theological  school  at  Tubingen,  and  had  made 
him  follow  the  Latin  lessons  from  the  time  he  was  three  till 
he  was  thirteen..  When  he  was  eight  years  old,  a  student 
taught  him  the  piano.  The  student  left  however  in  six 
months'  time,  and  the  boy  had  to  continue  his  music  alone. 
He  succeeded  so  well  that,  by  the  time  he  was  twelve,  he 
was  sufficiently  advanced  to  be  able  to  take  pupils.  At 
eleven  he  had  taken  drawing-lessons,  and  was  already  study- 
ing Greek,  Hebrew,  logic,  and  rhetoric.  His  father  hoped 
that  he  would  be  able  to  finish  his  studies  without  payment 
in  the  academy  of  science  and  art  of  Stuttgart,  but  this 
was  declared  to  be  impossible,  "  because  he  wras  of  too  low 
extraction."  Greatly  disheartened,  and  obliged  to  put  his 
hand  to  something  for  a  living,  he  became  a  bookbinder. 
In  spite  of  this,  however,  he  continued  to  cultivate  his 
talent  for  music  and  drawing. 

He  was  working  in  this  way  at  Basle,  with  little  taste  for 
the  trade  he  had  chosen,  when  Tobler  brought  him  Pesta- 
lozzi's  offer.  His  friends  advised  him  not  to  accept  it,  for 
they  only  knew  the  great  teacher  by  his  weak  side.  "  He's 
all  but  a  mad  man,"  they  said,  "  with  whom  it  is  better  to 
have  nothing  to  do ;  he  never  quite  knows  what  he  wants,  and 
has  even  been  seen  in  the  streets  of  Basle  with  his  shoes 
tied  on  with  straw."  This  was  a  fact,  for  one  day  Pestalozzi, 
being  anxious  to  help  a  poor  man  outside  the  town  gates, 
and  having  no  money,  had  given  him  his  shoe-buckles.  But 
Buss  had  read  Leonard  and  Gertrude,  and  that  was  enough. 

When  Buss  arrived  at  Burgdorf,  Pestalozzi,  who  hurried 
to  meet  him,  his  hair  and  clothes  in  the  greatest  disorder,  his 
stockings  down,  and  his  shoes  covered  with  dust,  pro  uced 
for  a  moment  anything  but  a  favourable  impression.  Soon, 
however,  the  quickness  of  his  intellect,  together  with  his 
extreme  kindliness  and  simpleness,  had  entirely  won  the 
sympathy  and  trust  of  the  new  comer. 

On  entering  the  schoolroom,  Buss  found  nothing  at  first 
but  noise  and  confusion,  and  it  was  some  little  time  before 
he  could  understand  what  was  going  on.  His  first  impres- 
sion was  that  the  children  were  kept  too  long  at  the  ele- 
ments ;  but  when  he  saw  how  much  power  this  gave  them 
afterwards,  he  could  not  help  feeling  that  if  he  himself  had 
been  taught  in  this  way,  he  would  have  been  in  a  positioi 


204          PESTALOZZI:    HIS  LIFE  AND    WORK. 

to  carry  on  his  studies  by  himself,  and  need  never  have  been 
prevented  from  rising  in  the  world. 

Krusi's  account  of  the  masters  with  whom  the  Burgdorf 
institute  opened  is  as  follows  : 

"  Our  society  thus  consisted  of  four  very  different  men, 
brought  together  by  a  strange  combination  of  circumstances : 
the  founder,  whose  chief  literary  reputation  was  that  of  a 
dreamer,  incapable  in  practical  life,  and  three  young  men, 
one  a  private  tutor,  whose  youth  had  been  much  neglected, 
who  had  begun  to  study  late,  and  whose  pedagogical  efforts 
had  never  produced  the  results  that  his  character  and 
talents  seemed  to  promise,  another  a  bookbinder,  who  de- 
voted his  leisure  to  singing  and  drawing,  and  the  third  a 
village  schoolmaster,  who  carried  out  the  duties  of  his  office 
as  best  he  could  without  having  been  in  any  way  prepared 
for  them.  Those  who  looked  on  this  group  of  men,  scarce 
one  of  them  with  a  home  of  his  own,  naturally  formed  but 
a  small  opinion  of  their  capabilities.  And  yet  our  work 
succeeded,  and  won  the  public  confidence  beyond  the  expec- 
tation of  those  who  knew  us,  and  even  beyond  our  own." 

This  confidence  was  also  excited  from  the  very  outset  by 
a  public  testimony  to  the  value  of  Pestalozzi's  work,  a  testi- 
mony indeed  of  such  importance,  that  we  must  lay  it  before 
our  readers  before  we  proceed  to  give  the  history  of  the 
Burgdorf  institute. 

.  The  Commission  that  had  been  appointed  by  the  Society 
of  the  Friends  of  Education  to  report  on  Pestalozzi's  doc- 
trine paid  a  visit  to  his  school  very  shortly  after  Krusi  had 
joined  him.  The  results  of  their  inquiry  were  drawn  up  by 
the  secretary  Luthi,  and  presented  on  the  1st  of  October, 
1800,  to  a  general  meeting  of  the  Society,  held  in  the  houso 
of  the  Minister  of  Arts  and  Science,  no  longer  Stapfer,  but 
Mohr,  of  Lucerne.  The  report  runs  as  follows : 

"  The  first  thing  we  noticed  was  that  Pestalozzi's  children 
learn  to  spell,  read,  write,  and  calculate  quickly  and  well, 
arriving  in  six  months  at  results  which  an  ordinary  village 
schoolmaster  would  hardly  bring  them  to  in  three  years. 

"  It  is  true  that  schoolmasters  are  not  generally  men  like 
Pestalozzi,  nor  do  they  find  assistants  like  those  of  our 


PESTALOZZPS  INSTITUTE  AT  BURCDORF.    205 

friend.  But  it  seems  to  us  that  this  extraordinary  progress 
depends  not  so  much  upon  the  teachers  as  upon  the  method 
of  teaching. 

"  And  what  is  this  method  ?  It  is  a  method  which  simply 
follows  the  path  of  Nature,  or,  in  other  words,  which 
leads  the  child  slowly,  and  by  his  own  efforts,  from  sense- 
iinpressions  to  abstract  ideas.  Another  advantage  of  this 
method  is  that  it  does  not  unduly  exalt  the  master,  inas- 
much as  he  never  appears  as  a  superior  being,  but,  like 
kindly  Nature,  lives  and  works  with  the  children,  his  equals, 
seeming  rather  to  learn  with  them  than  to  teach  them  with 
authority. 

"  Who  does  not  know  how  ready  the  youngest  children 
are  to  give  everything  a  name,  to  put  things  together,  and 
then  take  them  to  pieces  again  for  the  sake  of  new  combina- 
tions? Who  does  not  remember  that  he  liked  drawing 
better  than  writing?  Who  does  not  know  that  the  most 
unlearned  men  are  often  the  quickest  at  mental  calcula- 
tions? Who  is  ignorant  that  children,  boys  and  girls, 
almost  as  soon  as  they  can  walk,  delight  in  playing  at 
soldiers,  and  in  other  forms  of  exercise  ? 

u  It  is  on  these  simple  and  well-known  facts  that  Pestalozzi 
bases  his  method  of  instruction.  W'ere  it  not  for  the  fact  that 
other  men  are  daily  making  the  same  mistakes  as  teachers, 
we  should  be  inclined  to  ask  how  it  is  that  this  idea  never 
occurred  to  anybody  before.1' 

The  report  then  goes  on  to  speak  of  the  use  of  movable 
letters  for  spelling  and  reading,  slates  for  writing,  and 
visible  objects  for  teaching  the  children  to  count,  and  men- 
tions that  singing  and  walking  often  take  the  place  of  the 
regular  lessons.  It  concludes  as  follows : 

"  So  far  as  we  have  been  able  to  judge,  it  is  impossible  to 
grasp  the  general  idea  of  the  method  without  having  fol- 
lowed the  exercises  from  the  very  beginning.  It  results 
from  what  we  have  said  that  Pestalozzi' s  system  ought  to  be 
introduced  into  the  whole  of  Switzerland  •  the  advantages 
of  such  a  step  would  be  incalculable.  Pestalozzi's  earnest 
desire  is  that  he  may  be  able,  with  the  help  of  his  worthy 
collaborators,  to  make  his  method  generally  known,  and  in- 
struct all  schoolmasters  in  its  use.  The  Commission  cannct 


206         PESTALOZZ1:    HIS  LIFE  AND    WORK. 

but  join  heartily  in  this  desire,  and  would  urge  the  Society 
to  use  all  its  influence  towards  enabling  Pestalozzi  to  found 
in  Burgdorf  a  normal  school  for  primary  teachers,  to  which, 
for  the  practical  preparation  of  the  piipils,  a  model  school 
would  be  attached." 

In  consequence  of  this  report,  and  the  request  of  the  Society 
of  the  Friends  of  Education,  the  Executive  Council  granted 
to  Pestalozzi  the  sum  of  twenty  pounds  for  the  winter 
session  which  was  about  to  commence. 

At  the  same  time,  Schnell,  the  prefect  of  Burgdorf,  pub- 
lished a  pamphlet,  in  which  he  gave  a  more  complete  and 
appreciative  exposition  of  Pestalozzi's  views  than  had  been 
contained  in  the  report  of  the  Commission. 

It  was  on  the  24th  of  October,  1800,  that  Pestalozzi 
announced  the  opening  of  his  educational  institution  in  the 
castle  of  Burgdorf,  with  a  normal  school  for  training  teachers 
attached.  Children  of  the  middle  class,  living  in  the  insti- 
tution, would  pay  from  sixteen  to  twenty  pounds,  according 
to  the  position  of  their  parents. 

The  Society  of  the  Friends  of  Education,  seeing  that  the 
help  furnished  by  the  State  would  be  far  from  sufficient  for 
the  needs  of  the  new  institution,  had  appointed  a  Commis- 
sion to  make  a  public  appeal  for  subscriptions  throughout 
Switzerland,  emphasizing  Pestalozzi's  exceptional  merits, 
and  calling  attention  to  the  great  advantages  which  would 
result  to  the  country  if  his  undertaking  were  properly 
supported. 

This  appeal  appeared  on  the  20th  of  November.  It  states 
that  Pestalozzi's  desire  is  to  found  a  poor-school  in  connec- 
tion with  the  institution  for  middle-class  children ;  it  promises 
that  there  shaft,  be  religious  observances  for  Catholics  as 
well  as  Protestants,  and  entire  liberty  of  conscience  both 
for  the  children  and  teacher-students  ;  it  gives  finally  the 
names  of  certain  people  in  each  canton  authorized  to  receive 
subscriptions.  It  is  signed  by  the  minister  Rengger,  and 
by  Lathi,  Usteri,  and  Fussli,  members  of  the  Legislative 
Council. 

The  Swiss  newspapers  which  spoke  of  the  enterprise  ap- 
proved or  condemned  it  according  to  their  political  opinions 
The  very  advanced  ideas  of  Pestalozzi's  youth  were  not.  yet 
forgotten,  and  he  was  generally  looked  on  rather  as  an 


FESTALOZZrS  INSTITUTE  AT  BURGDORF.     ao/ 

ardent  friend  of  the  revolution  than  as  a  man  of  genius  and 
a  devoted  philanthropist. 

In  the  critical  condition  of  the  country,  the  public  sub- 
scription produced  but  very  poor  results.  But  Pestalozzi 
would  not  be  beaten ;  and  in  spite  of  his  poverty,  he  at  once 
received  the  poor  refugee  children  free  of  charge.  Chil- 
dren who  were  able  to  pay  had  to  wait  till  the  place 
was  ready  for  them. 

The  Burgdorf  institute  opened  early  in  January,  1801. 
Pestalozzi  himself  had  been  obliged  to  help  pay  for  the 
necessary  repairs  and  furnishing,  and  now  had  to  practise 
the  strictest  economy.  Of  all  the  establishments  he  founded, 
however,  this  is  the  one  which  most  fully  realized  his  views, 
and  bore  the  most  unmistakable  stamp  of  his  original  genius, 
and  it  is  this  one  that  we  must  study  if  we  wish  to  see  the 
master's  doctrine  carried  out  in  all  its  purity.  We  shall 
begin  with  the  internal  history  of  this  institution,  which 
only  lasted  three  years  and  a  half,  but  which  carried  afar 
the  pedagogical  reputation  of  its  head.  In  another  chapter 
we  shall  examine  the  educational  principles  on  which  it  was 
founded,  and  the  new  works  by  which  Pestalozzi  sought  to 
make  them  better  known. 

Ramsauer's  memoirs,  from  which  we  have  already  quoted, 
contain  certain  graphic  details  about  this  period  of  Pesta- 
lozzi's  life  which  are  not  to  be  found  elsewhere,  and  which 
we  therefore  give  in  full : 

"  Of  all  Pestalozzi's  pupils  I  was  the  first  to  be  received 
into  the  establishment,  and  lodged  in  the  castle ;  the 
second  was  my  friend  Egger,  a  refugee  like  myself,  who 
was  also  received  gratuitously.  Once  more  this  noble- 
hearted  man  thought  more  of  others  than  of  himself.  For 
us,  indeed,  he  was  always  loving  and  true  as  a  father.  My 
position  being  rather  different  from  the  rest,  I  was  brought 
into  special  relations  with  him.  As  a  pupil  I  had  to  be 
trained  and  educated,  but  as  a  child  of  the  house  I  had  to 
perform  certain  services  for  him.  Under  the  name  of  "  table- 
boy  "  I  was  entrusted  with  the  various  small  domestic  duties 
of  which  a  child  is  capable,  some  of  which,  however,  were 
by  no  means  light,  and  some  even  scarcely  suitable. 

"  Amongst  the  first  was  the  duty  of  drawing  water  for  use 
in  the  castle.  The  well  was  three  hundred  and  eighty  feet 


2o8         PESTALOZZI :    HIS  LIFE  AND    WORK. 

deep,  and  the  water  -was  drawn  by  walking  in  a  hollow 
wheel  of  some  twenty-four  feet  in  diameter.  This  had  to 
be  done  in  all  weathers,  and  was  by  no  means  a  light  task, 
especially  in  winter,  when  a  bitter  wind  was  blowing 
through  the  wheel. 

"  Whenever  I  think  of  that  period  of  my  life,  I  cannot 
help  thanking  God  for  His  goodness  in  preserving  us  from 
evil  amidst  the  conversation  that  the  men  and  maidservants 
used  to  indulge  in  when  we  children  were  helping  them, 
which  we  often  did  till  midnight.  Their  unseemly  beha- 
viour might  have  done  us  all  the  more  harm  from  the  fact 
that  in  spite  of  our  extreme  youth  we  were  left  almost 
entirely  to  ourselves,  and,  after  finishing  our  domestic  duties, 
might,  had  we  felt  so  inclined,  have  remained  idle.  But 
two  of  the  other  table-boys  and  myself  (there  were  often  six 
or  eight  of  us)  were  happily  so  eager  to  learn  that  a  spare 
quarter  of  an  hour  was  always  well  employed.  We  looked 
on  study  indeed  as  our  chief  work,  though  at  least  half  our 
day  was  always  taken  up  with  manual  labour. 

"  But  when  on  summer  days  we  saw  the  troop  of  masters 
and  children  going  down  the  castle  hill,  either  to  bathe  in 
the  limpid  river  below,  or  to  climb  the  rocks  on  its  banks, 
whilst  we  table-boys  had  to  stay  behind  to  work  in  the 
kitchen  or  cellar,  or  elsewhere,  then  often  I  could  not  keep 
back  my  tears.  But  now  for  many  years  I  have-  thanked 
God  that  I  so  soon  learned  to  obey,  to  do  useful  work,  and 
to  overcome  my  desires.  Besides,  I  was  all  the  happier  when 
I  did  take  part  in  these  pleasures. 

"  And  yet  my  occasional  discouragement  might  perhaps 
have  become  intolerable,  and  prompted  me  to  run  away,  if  I 
had  not  had,  besides  Pestalozzi,  another  good  genius  to  hold 
me  fast,  and  make  me  forget  my  troubles.  This  was  the 
widow  of  Pestalozzi's  only  son,  Jacobli,  an  excellent  woman, 
whose  own  sufferings  had  strengthened  her,  and  filled  her 
with  compassion  for  the  sufferings  of  others. 

"  For  everybody  in  the  institute  she  was  a  friend  and 
protector,  but  for  us  table-boys  she  was  a  guardian  angel. 
Afterwards,  even  when  she  had  become  the  wife  of  kind 
Mr.  Kuster,  she  continued  for  many  years  to  share  the 
household  cares  and  labours  of  Pestalozzi's  establishment, 
and  was  besides  an  invaluable  friend  to  the  girls'  insti- 
tute." 


PESTALOZZ1  S  INSTITUTE  AT  BURGDORF.    209 

Ramsauer  goes  on  to  relate  how  his  education  progressed 
in  spite  of  the  small  number  and  irregularity  of  the  lessons 
in  which  he  took  part,  how  his  eagerness  to  learn  and  Pes- 
talozzi's  kind  attention  made  up  for  everything,  and  how  at 
twelve  years  of  age  he  himself  was  set  to  teach  in  certain 
small  elementary  classes.  He  then  continues  : 

"  During  my  stay  at  Burgdorf,  I  paid  a  visit  every  sum- 
mer to  my  kind  benefactress  at  Schleumen,  who  each  time 
presented  me  with  new  clothes.  These  were  all  the  more 
acceptable,  from  the  fact  that  Pestalozzi  was  obliged  to  use 
what  money  he  had  to  keep  his  institute  going  and  could 
not  possibly  have  afforded  to  give  me  any. 

"  I  have  said  above  how  much  progress  I  had  made  in 
drawing,  arithmetic,  and  what  was  called  the  A  B  C  of 
sense-impression.1  Nor  must  I  forget  to  mention  singing. 
Although  I  was  never  called  on  to  teach  it,  either  from  want 
of  talent  or  want  of  time,  it  was  one  of  the  lessons  which 
had  the  greatest  charm  for  me,  especially  as  it  was  taught  in 
the  early  days  of  the  institute. 

"  The  thirty  or  forty  children  of  both  sexes  of  Pestalozzi's 
old  school  came  from  the  town  to  the  castle  to  take  part  in 
the  singing  lessons.  Buss  made  his  pupils  sing  as  they 
walked  up  and  down  the  big  corridors  of  the  castle,  two 
and  two,  and  holding  each  other's  hands.  That  was  our 
greatest  pleasure  ;  but  our  joy  reached  its  height  when  our 
gymnastic  master  Naef,  who  was  a  most  original  man,  joined 
us.  He  was  an  old  soldier,  who  had  seen  service  in  nearly 
every  part  of  the  world.  He  looked  a  rough,  bearded,  surly 
giant  enough,  but  as  a  matter  of  fact  he  was  kindness  itself. 
When  he  marched  with  a  military  air  at  the  head  of  some 
sixty  or  eighty  children,  loudly  singing  a  Swiss  song  as  he 
went,  nobody  could  help  following  him. 

"  Indeed,  singing  was  one  of  our  chief  sources  of  pleasure 
in  the  institute.  We  sang  everywhere — out  of  doors,  on 
our  walks,  and,  in  the  evening,  in  the  court  of  the  castle ; 
and  this  singing  together  contributed  in  no  small  measure 
to  the  harmony  and  good  feeling  which  prevailed  amongst 
us.  I  must  add  that  in  spite  of  his  rough  exterior,  Naef 

1  Exercises  in  which  the  children  made  their  own  remarks  on  the 
objects  placed  before  them. 


zio         PESTALOZZI:    HIS  LIFE  AND    WORK. 

was  the  chief  favourite  with  the  children,  for  the  simple 
reason  that,  as  he  was  never  so  happy  as  in  their  society, 
he  was  always  with  them.  He  used  to  play,  drill,  walk, 
bathe,  climb,  throw  stones  with  them,  just  like  a  big  child, 
and  in  this  way  gained  almost  unlimited  authority  over 
them.  And  yet  he  had  nothing  of  the  pedagogue  about  him 
but  the  heart.  .  .  . 

"  I  must  further  say  that  in  the  first  years  of  the  Burgdorf 
institute,  nothing  like  a  systematic  plan-  of  lessons  was 
followed,  and  that  the  whole  life  of  the  place  was  so  simple 
and  home-like,  that  in  the  half-hour's  recreation  which  fol- 
lowed breakfast,  Pestalozzi  would  often  become  so  interested 
in  the  spirited  games  of  the  children  in  the  playground  as  to 
allow  them  to  go  on  undisturbed  till  ten  o'clock.  And  on 
summer  evenings,  after  bathing  in  the  Emme,  instead  of 
beginning  work  again,  we  often  stayed  out  till  eight  or  nine 
o'clock  looking  for  plants  and  minerals." 

This  testimony  of  Ramsauer  as  to  the  family  life  at  Burg- 
dorf is  confirmed  by  an  anecdote  which  deserves  mention.  A 
peasant,  the  father  of  a  pupil,  had  come  one  day  to  visit  the 
establishment.  Very  surprised  at  what  he  saw,  he  cried : 
"  Why,  this  is  not  a  school,  but  a  family."  "  That  is  the 
greatest  praise  you  can  give  me,"  answered  Pestalozzi ;  "  I 
have  succeeded,  thank  God,  in  showing  the  world  that  there 
must  be  no  gulf  between  the  home  and  the  school,  and  that 
the  latter  is  only  useful  to  education  in  so  far  as  it  develops 
\  the  sentiments  and  the  virtues  which  lend  the  charm  and 
value  to  family  life." 

If  the  Burgdorf  school  thus  presented  the  picture  of  a 
great  family,  it  was  only  because  Pestalozzi  wns  a  father  for 
everybody,  and  lived  but  for  others.  His  activity  and  love 
inspired  the  whole  household.  His  assistants,  who  had  a 
profound  affection  and  veneration  for  him,  were  Krusi  for 
language  and  arithmetic,  Tobler  for  geography  and  history, 
Buss  for  geometry,  drawing,  and  singing,  and  Naef  for  gym- 
nastics and  one  or  two  elementary  subjects. 

Even  the  financial  difficulty  which  weighed  upon  the 
establishment  exercised  a  wholesome  moral  influence.  The 
masters  had  refused  good  offers  to  remain  with  Pestalozzi, 
and  went  so  far  as  to  give  up  a  portion  of  their  salary, 
small  as  it  was,  to  make  up  for  his  want  of  means.  The 


PESTALOZZPS   INSTITUTE  AT  BURG  DO  RF.    211 

pupils,  on  their  side,  contented  themselves  with  little,  and 
did  all  they  could  to  keep  down  the  expenses.  It  was  in- 
deed a  practical  school  of  sacrifice  and  renunciation. 

The  children's  trust  in  their  masters,  their  love  and 
gratitude  for  them,  took  the  place  of  rules  and  discipline ; 
there  were  no  rewards,  and,  except  in  very  exceptional  cases, 
no  punishments ;  obedience  was  perfect  because  it  was 
spontaneous.  The  children  were  lively  and  happy,  they 
liked  their  lessons  almost  as  well  as  their  games,  and  it  was 
not  rare  to  see  some  of  them  stop  in  the  middle  of  their  play 
to  go  and  work  together  before  a  blackboard  or  a  map. 

It  was  at  Burgdorf  that  those  sense-impressing  lessons  in 
natural  history  began  which  played  so  large  and  useful 
a  part  in  all  Pestalozzi's  establishments.  Such  lessons  are 
liked  by  the  children,  render  their  walks  interesting,  and 
help  to  develop  tastes  which  may  afterwards  prove  of  ex- 
treme value.  Krusi  afterwards  became  a  first-rate  mineral- 
ogist", and  gave  most  enjoyable  and  useful  lessons ;  but  in 
the  early  days  at  Burgdorf  the  masters  were  almost  aa 
ignorant  of  natural  history  as  the  children.  Minerals  and 
plants  were  indeed  collected,  examined,  and  described,  but 
their  classification  was  entirely  a  matter  of  individual  taste. 
It  was  John  Conrad  Escher,  of  Zurich,1  who  first  showed 
Krusi  the  differences  between  quartz,  granite,  etc.,  when  on 
a  visit  to  Burgdorf. 

In  spite  of  the  success  of  the  institute,  the  supply  of 
money  was  small,  and  Pestalozzi's  own  resources  were  soon 
exhausted.  As  early  as  the  18th  of  February,  1801,  the 
Executive  Council  had,  at  the  request  of  the  minister  Mohr, 
agreed  to  continue  yearly  the  grant  of  twenty  pounds  that 
had  been  voted  to  the  Burgdorf  institute  on  the  8th  of 
October,  1800,  and  had  further  ordered  that  Pestalozzi 
should  be  supplied  with  twenty  measures  of  firewood  from 
the  State  forests  in  the  canton  of  Berne.  But  on  the  19th 
of  April,  Mohr,  after  spending  a  day  at  the  Castle,  made 
such  a  favourable  report  to  the  Council,  that  it  was  decided 
to  raise  the  State  grant  to  seventy  pounds  a  year,  payable 
quarterly.  Many  donations  also  came  in  from  private  people, 


l  Tliis  was  the  engineer  who,  on  account  of  his  successful  draining 
operations,  was  known  as  Escher  of  the  Linth. 


212         PESTALOZZI :    HIS  LIFE   AND    WORK. 

amongst  others  one  of  twenty  pounds  from  the  wife  of  the 
French  minister. 

At  the  same  time  the  reputation  of  the  institute  was 
spreading;  the  leading  newspapers  of  the  district  spoke  of 
it  iu  the  highest  terms,  the  number  of  pupils  steadily  con- 
tinued to  increase,  and  before  very  long  applications  had  to 
be  refused  for  want  of  room. 

On  the  22nd  of  September,  1801,  Mohr,  in  his  report  to  the 
Executive  Council,  says: 

"  Pestalozzi's  institute  in  Burgdorf  Castle,  the  first  and 
only  one  of  its  kind,  is  attracting,  by  its  now  generally 
recognized  usefulness,  numerous  pupils,  whom  the  director, 
for  want  of  habitable  space,  is  obliged  to  refuse,  to  his  own 
great  regret,  and  to  the  prejudice  of  public  education.  It  is 
urgent  that  the  buildings  already  occupied  by  Pestalozzi 
should  be  enlarged  by  the  addition  of  two  large  dormitories 
for  pupils,  and  six  small  rooms  for  masters." 

Although  the  Council  had  decided  on  the  5th  of  the  pre- 
ceding August  that,  considering  the  low  state  of  the  treasury, 
no  repairs  should  be  executed  that  year  on  any  public  build- 
ing, it  agreed  to  carry  out  the  necessary  improvements  in 
Burgdorf  Castle,  which,  it  was  estimated,  would  cost  about  a 
hundred  and  twenty  pounds. 

In  October  of  the  same  year,  Pestalozzi  published  Hciv 
Gertrude  Teaches  her  Children,  a  book  which  was  intended 
to  give  the  public  a  full  and  complete  account  of  his  doctrine 
and  of  his  work.  As  this  book  is  of  such  high  importance, 
we  must  reserve  a  detailed  examination  of  it  for  another 
chapter ;  we  can  only  say  here  that  it  gained  considerable 
notoriety  in  German-speaking  countries,  and  attracted  to 
Burgdorf  numerous  visitors,  amongst  whom  were  several 
very  distinguished  men. 

The  very  next  month,  for  instance,  there  arrived  together 
Wessenberg  and  Charles  Victor  von  Bonstetten.  The  latter 
speaks  of  his  visit  in  a  letter  to  Frederic  Brun,  written  the 
evening  of  his  arrival.  The  letter  confirms  all  we  have 
said  above,  and  contains  besides .  some  very  interesting  com- 
ments. As  it  is,  unfortunately,  too  long  to  quote  in  full,  the 
following  extracts  must  suffice : 

"  I  cannot  understand  why  Pestalozzi  should  say  that  all 


PESTALOZZPS  INSTITUTE  AT  BURGDORF.    213 

instruction  is  based  on  three  chief  elements — number,  form, 
and  language  ;  but  what  I  do  see,  and  see  clearly,  is  that  his 
forty-eight  children,  of  ages  varying  from  five  to  twelve, 
have  learned,  .in  from  six  to  ten  months,  writing,  reading, 
drawing,  and  a  little  geography  and  French,  and  have  besides 
made  marvellous  progress  in  arithmetic.  They  do  every- 
thing cheerfully,  and  their  health  seems  perfect.  I  know  not 
whether  Pestalozzi's  method  is  good,  nor  whether,  indeed, 
he  has  any  reasoned-out  method,  but  I  see  plainly  that  he  is 
walking  in  unknown  ways,  and  arriving  at  hitherto  un- 
known results,  and  that,  after  all,  is  the  most  important 
consideration.  .  .  . 

"  I  look  upon  Pestalozzi's  method  as  a  precious  seed,  still 
young  and  undeveloped,  but  full  of  promise.  The  success 
the  method  has  already  obtained  should  suffice  to  convince 
any  impartial  thinker  of  its  excellence.  .  .  . 

"  As  it  will  be  long  before  there  is  another  Pestalozzi,  I 
fear  that  the  rich  harvest  his  discovery  seems  to  promise 
will  be  reserved  for  future  ages.  It  is  a  pity  that  he  should 
have  expressed  his  political  opinions  with  so  much  warmth  ; 
in  these  revolutionary  times  it  will  but  add  another  difficulty 
to  those  which  have  always  to  be  overcome  before  complete 
justice  can  be  done  to  an  exceptional  man.  For  forty  years 
Pestalozzi  has  devoted  his  life  to  the  education  of  poor  chil- 
dren; let  him  who  has  done  more  for  humanity  cast  the  first 
stone !  .  .  . 

"  The  children  know  little,  but  what  they  know  they  know 
well.  In  my  opinion,  there  could  be  nothing  better  than 
the  Burgdorf  school  for  children  of  eight  or  nine.  But  it 
will  not  bear  fruit  till  upon  this  basis  and  in  the  light  of 
this  experience  a  new  storey  has  been  added  to  the  edi- 
fice. .  .  . 

"  The  children  are  very  happy,  and  evidently  take  great 
pleasure  in  their  lessons,  which  says  a  great  deal  for  the 
method." 

In  December,  1801,  a  distinguished  Swiss,  who  had  lately 
visited  the  institute,  published  a  very  favourable  account  of 
it  in  a  series  of  unsigned  articles  in  an  Augsburg  paper, 
For  the  sake  of  avoiding  repetition,  we  shall  only  quote  the 
following  few  lines : 

"  I  must  confess  that  I  arrived  at  Burgdorf  with  grave 


214         PESTALOZZI:   HIS  LIFE   AND    WORK. 

doubts  as  to  the  fitness,  usefulness  or  success  of  the  experi- 
ment which  was  being  carried  on  there.  But  my  fears  gave 
place  to  confidence  and  joy  when  I  saw  how  Pestalozzi  and 
his  helpers  treated  the  children.  On  reaching  home,  I  said 
to  my  friends :  '  There  is  that  going  on  at  Btirgdort  which 
deserves  the  respectful  attention  and  support  of  all  those 
who  are  interested  in  the  happiness  of  humanity,  and  in  the 
progress  of  public  education.' " 

The  numerous  visitors  to  the  institute  were  particularly 
astonished  by  the  children's  progress  in  drawing  and  in  the 
elements  of  geometry.  A  distinguished  Nuremberg  merchant, 
who  had  at  first  been  much  prejudiced  against  Pestalozzi's 
work,  speaks  thus  : 

"  I  was  amazed  when  I  saw  these  children  treating  the 
most  complicated  calculations  of  fractions  as  the  simplest 
thing  in  the  world.  Problems  which  I  myself  could  not 
solve  without  careful  work  on  paper,  they  did  easily  in 
their  heads,  giving  the  correct  answer  in  a  few  moments, 
and  explaining  the  process  with  ease  and  readiness.  They 
seemed  to  have  no  idea  that  they  were  doing  anything 
extraordinary." 

"  At  the  Burgdorf  institute,"  says  another  visitor,  "  chil- 
dren of  from  six  to  eight  years  draw  difficult  geometrical 
figures  without  rule  or  compass  so  correctly  that  no  one  would 
believe  it  who  had  not  seen  it." 

•'  I  have  seen,"  says  another,  "  a  child  of  ten,  who  had 
only  been  a  pupil  of  Pestalozzi's  for  ten  months,  reduce  a 
map  of  Scandinavia  to  a  smaller  scale  in  an  hour  with  such 
exactness  as  to  defy  the  most  searching  examination." 

These  accounts  may,  indeed,  be  somewhat  overdrawn,  but 
they  prove,  at  any  rate,  that  Pestalozzi's  method  of  teaching 
arithmetic  had  succeeded  under  Krusi's  direction  long  before 
Joseph  Schmidt  took  charge  of  this  branch  of  instruction. 
This  general  consensus  of  opinion  in  favour  of  the  new  school 
still  farther  increased  its  reputation,  and  made  it  more  and 
more  an  object  of  public  attention. 

"  An  institute,"  it  was  said,  "  which  produces  these  impor- 
tant results  with  such  slender  means  is  surely  deserving  of 


PESTALOZZPS  INSTITUTE  AT  BURGDORF.    215 

such  support  from  the  Government  as  will  guarantee  its  con- 
tinuance. Ought  it  not  even  to  be  utilized  for  a  reform  of 
public  elementary  education  throughout  Switzerland  ?  " 

Since  the  revolution  of  the  18th  of  October,  1801,  Mohr  had 
no  longer  been  minister,  and  the  Executive  Council  of  the 
Republic  had  been  replaced  by  a  Petty  Council.  The  latter, 
feeling  the  necessity  of  doing  something  for  Pestalozzi,  had 
appointed  a  Commission  to  visit  the  institute,  in  order  that, 
before  taking  any  decisive  step,  it  might  be  in  possession  of 
reliable  and  detailed  information  as  to  its  working. 

The  report  of  this  Commission,  drawn  up  by  Ith,  the 
president  of  the  Council  of  Public  Education  in  Berne,  was 
presented  in  June,  1802.1 

"  On  my  first  visit,"  he  says,  "  I  was  full  of  distrust,  and 
had  thoroughly  made  up  my  mind  not  to  let  myself  be 
dazzled  by  a  brilliant  theory,  or  carried  away  by  the  novelty 
of  a  few  striking  results."  (p.  76.) 

At  that  time  there  were  some  eighty  children  in  the  in- 
stitute, of  ages  ranging  from  five  to  eighteen,  and  of  almost 
every  social  condition.  Amongst  the  number  were  twelve 
poor  children,  supported  entirely  by  the  establishment. 

The  report  first  endeavours  to  make  clear  the  principles 
of  the  method  invented  by  Pestalozzi,  "  who  has  discovered 
the  real  and  universal  laws  of  all  elementary  teaching."  It 
then  points  to  the  excellence  of  the  results  already  obtained, 
as  established  by  the  Commission  in  its  late  careful  and 
thorough  examination  of  the  pupils,  and  especially  praises 
the  moral  and  religious  life  of  the  establishment,  and  the  dis- 
cipline, which,  it  poh  ts  out,  is  entirely  based  upon  affection. 
It  recommends  finallj  that  the  institute  shall  be  turned  into 
a  normal  school,  to  be  supported  by  the  State  ;  that  fixed 
salaries  shall  be  allowed  to  all  the  masters,  and  that  the 
projected  new  edition  of  Pestalozzi's  works  on  elementary 
education  shall  bo  helped  forward  by  a  large  subscription. 

For  Pestalozzi  himself  the  Commission  asked  but  one 
thing,  which  was  that  help  should  be  given  him  to  found  a 
new  home  for  orphans  on  his  land  at  Neuhof,  as  soon  as  the 

*  Official  Report  on  Pestalozzi's  Institute,  etc.,  Berne  aud  Zurich,  1802. 


216         PESTALOZZI:    HIS  LIFE  AND    WORK. 

opportunity  offered.  The  fact  is  that  Pestalozzi,  satisfied  with 
having  made  his  method  known,  and  with  having  found  men 
capable  of  applying  it,  thought  that  his  presence  would  soon 
be  no  longer  needed  at  Burgdorf,  and  was  already  beginning 
to  think  of  leaving  the  future  management  of  the  institute 
in  the  hands  of  his  collaborators,  and  once  more  taking  up 
the  work  to  which  he  had  always  believed  himself  to  be 
especially  called.  As  rest  from  his  long  labours  he  looked 
forward  to  ending  his  days  amid  poor  and  destitute  children, 
to  whom  he  might  be  as  a  father. 

In  August,  1802,  Burgdorf  was  visited  by  Soyaux,  of 
Berlin,  whom  the  Jena  Literary  Gazette  reckoned  amongst 
the  opponents  of  the  Pestalozzian  method.  And  yet  Soyaux 
has  given  an  account  of  his  visit  in  a  pamphlet,  which  con- 
firms the  favourable  testimony  we  have  already  quoted.  He 
begins  by  summing  up  Pestalozzi's  personality  and  character 
with  wonderful  insight  and  power  of  analysis.  He  then 
describes  the  different  lessons  at  which  he  was  present,  and 
points  out  the  remarkable  development  of  the  pupils'  powers 
in  arithmetic  and  drawing.  Here  again  we  can  only  give 
one  or  two  short  quotations : 

"  Pestalozzi's  method  will,  perhaps,  meet  with  little  appro- 
bation, but  his  principles  and  the  tendency  of  his  method 
will  certainly  have  a  most  valuable  influence. 

"  His  discipline  is  based  upon  the  principle  that  children 
must  be  allowed  the  greatest  possible  liberty,  and  that 
only  when  they  abuse  this  liberty  must  they  be  interfered 
with.  .  .  . 

"The  establishment  contains  in  all  a  hundred  and  two 

Sersons,  seventy-two  of  whom  are  pupils.     These  are  mostly 
wiss,  and  are  drawn  from   every  canton  in  the  country, 
Catholic   and   Protestant   alike.     They  are  taught   by  ten 
masters.     There  are  also  a  certain  number  of  foreigners  in 
the  Castle,  who  are  there  to  study  the  method. 

"  The  institute  is  young,  and  Pestalozzi's  principles  are 
still  in  process  of  development.  As  they  are  not  yet  come 
to  maturity,  it  follows  that  the  organization  of  the  establish- 
ment is  still  incomplete.  Director  and  assistants  are  working 
with  all  their  might  to  perfect  the  edifice.  One  tries  to  im- 
prove certain  appliances,  another  seeks  a  natural  way  of 
teaching  reading,  numbers,  etc.  Would  that  all  educational 


PESTALOZZPS   INSTITUTE  AT  BURG  DO  RF.   217 

establishments  might  present  such  a  picture  of  concord  and 
harmony,  and  betray  the  same  zeal  in  advancing  from  pro- 
gress to  progress." 

Meanwhile  the  Petty  Council  had  adopted  the  suggestions 
of  the  Commission.  A  small  salary  had  been  granted  to 
Pestalozzi  arid  each  of  his  masters ;  a  normal  school  had  been 
instituted  in  the  Castle  to  which  every  month  a  dozen  school- 
masters were  to  come  for  lessons ;  and  lastly,  with  the  help 
of  the  State,  a  second  and  cheap  edition  was  being  prepared 
of  the  books  compiled  in  the  institute. 

Pestalozzi  already  saw  the  future  of  his  work  assured,  and 
was  on  the  point  of  realizing  his  most  cherished  desire,  when 
the  unitary  Government  was  overthrown  by  a  fresh  revolu- 
tion, and  he  found  himself  robbed,  at  one  blow,  not  only  of  all 
his  hopes,  but  of  the  position  he  had  already  acquired.  It 
seemed,  indeed,  as  though  this  man  was  fated  to  see  the 
ground  fail  beneath  his  feet  whenever  he  felt  himself  within 
reach  of  his  end. 

On  the  17th  of  April,  1802,  the  Coiincil  had  convoked  in 
Berne  an  assembly  of  "  notables,"  chosen  by  itself,  for  the 
purpose  of  drawing  up  in  the  name  of  the  Republic  a  scheme 
lor  a  new  constitution.  This  scheme  was  unanimously 
adopted  by  the  Assembly  on  the  19th  of  May,  and  on  being 
submitted  to  the  votes  of  the  electors  throughout  Switzer- 
land, was  accepted  by  two  hundred  and  twenty-eight  thousand 
citizens  out  of  'three  hundred  and  two  thousand  entitled  to 
vote,  those  who  abstained  from  voting  being  counted  as 
accepting.  On  the  3rd  of  July,  the  acceptance  of  the  consti- 
tution was  proclaimed  at  Berne  and  the  new  Government 
was  formed.  As  a  consequence  of  this,  the  country  was  soon 
afterwards  evacuated  by  the  French  troops  that  had  hitherto 
occupied  it. 

This  was  the  signal  for  a  rising  which  spread  from  the 
smaller  cantons  over  well-nigh  the  whole  of  Switzerland. 
The  Swiss  army  had  to  retreat  before  the  insurgent  troops, 
and  the  Government,  that  on  the  2nd  of  September  had 
decided  to  ask  for  "the  kind  services  and  intervention  of  the 
French  Government,"  was  compelled,  on  the  19th,  to  with- 
draw from  Berne.  It  had  taken  refuge  at  Lausanne,  where 
its  only  protectors  were  the  Vaudese  militia,  when  a  pro- 
clamation from  the  First  Consul  Bonaparte  arrived  and  put  an 
16 


218         PESTALOZZI:  HIS  LIFE  AND    WORK. 

end  to  the  hostilities.  The  French  Government  consented 
to  act  as  mediator,  and  with  a  view  to  ascertaining  the  best 
means  of  restoring  union  and  tranquillity  amongst  all  parties, 
convoked  at  Paris  a  "  Consulta,"  composed  of  deputies  from 
the  Helvetian  Senate,  the  cantons,  and  any  communes  that 
wished  to  send  them. 

Pestalozzi  had  just  published  a  conciliatory  political 
pamphlet,  and  was  now  chosen  by  the  village  of  Kirch- 
berg  to  represent  it  at  the  Consulta.  He  was  also  chosen 
by  canton  Zurich,  in  company  with  Usteri  and  ex-director 
Laharpe. 

The  first  meeting  of  the  Consulta  took  place  in  Paris  on 
the  10th  of  December,  1802.  The  First  Consul  had  appointed 
a  Commission  to  confer  with  the  Swiss  deputies,  composed 
of  Barthelemy,  the  president  of 'the  Conservative  Senate,  and 
formerly  ambassador  in  Switzerland  ;  Fouche,  of  Nantes  ; 
and  Roederer  and  Desmeuniers,  councillors  of  state.  There 
were  two  opposing  parties  in  the  Consulta:  one  composed  of 
forty-five  members,  amongst  whom  was  Pestalozzi,  for  the 
most  part  favourable  to  the  new  ideas ;  the  other,  a  minority 
of  sixteen,  who  asked  more  or  less  explicitly  for  a  return  to 
the  old  state  of  things. 

Pestalozzi's  almost  unintelligible  French  and  his  eccentric 
appearance  were  much  against  his  getting  a  hearing  in 
Paris  ;.nor  could  he  confine  himself  to  the  political  questions 
under  discussion,  but  tried  to  make  the  occasion  an  opportu- 
nity for  expounding  his  educational  ideas  in  France.  He 
therefore  exercised  little  or  no  influence  in  the  Consulta, 
although  Roederer  was  at  that  time  displaying  both  zeal 
and  talent  in  the  matter  of  public  instruction. 

Pestalozzi  was  eager  to  obtain  an  audience  of  the  First 
Consul,  but  his  request  was  refused,  Bonaparte  saying  that 
he  had  something  else  to  do  than  consider  questions  of  A 
B  C.  He  instructed  Senator  Monge,  however,  to  hear  what 
Pestalozzi  had  to  say. 

Monge,  the  inventor  of  descriptive  geometry,  and  the 
founder  of  the  Polytechnic  school,  was  a  man  of  large  mind 
and  keen  intellect.  He  listened  patiently  to  Pestalozzi, 
asking  question  after  question  till  he  was  satisfied  that  he 
had  thoroughly  understood  him,  but  after  carefully  consider- 
ing the  plans  the  old  man  had  proposed,  he  replied  in  half- 
a-dozen  words  :  "  It  is  too  much  for  us." 


PESTALOZZPS  INSTITUTE  AT  DURGDORF.    219 

As  soon  as  Pestalozzi  saw  that  he  could  do  nothing  in 
Paris,  he  forsook  the  Consul ta  to  return  to  his  work  at 
Burgdorf.  As  he  entered  the  Castle,  Buss  said  to  him : 
"  Well,  did  you  see  Bonaparte  ?  "  "  No,"  replied  Pesta- 
lozzi ;  "  nor  he  me.''  l  These  >  words,  though  they  were 
spoken  with  a  smile,  may  perhaps  appear  presumptuous. 
And  yet,  if  Pestalozzi  merely  expressed  his  sense  of  his  own 
worth  by  them,  he  was  not  deceived,  for  of  these  two  men 
there  is  one  whose  memory  will  be  blessed  by  posterity  in 
all  lands,  and  it  is  not  he  whom  his  contemporaries  called 
"  the  great."  Bonaparte  did  France  an  immense  wrong  by 
rejecting  Pestalozzrs  ideas,  ideas  so  soon  to  be  accepted  by 
Prussia.  But  Bonaparte's  desire  was  to  be  master  of  the 
people,  whereas  Pestalozzi's  one  effort  was  to  set  them  free. 

We  may  here  mention  an  anecdote  related  by  Pompee  in 
the  book  already  quoted,  and,  so  far  as  we  are  aware,  to  be 
found  nowhere  else.  We  give  it  in  his  own  words : 

"  General  Ney,  the  French  ambassador  in  Berne,  was  in 
the  habit  of  paying  not  infrequent  visits  to  the  Burgdorf 
institute,  of  which  he  had  formed  a  very  high  opinion,  and 
of  which  he  gave  an  account  to  the  First  Consul.  .  .  . 
(p.  127.) 

"  If  Bonaparte  had  been  unwilling  to  concern  himself 
with  Pestalozzi's  questions  of  A  B  C  when  the  latter  was  in 
Paris  as  a  Swiss  deputy,  he  had  at  any  rate  readily  accepted 
Ney's  suggestion  that  the  new  system  should  be  introduced 
into  French  schools.  Naef,  one  of  the  Burgdorf  masters, 
was  accordingly  sent  to  Paris.  He  commenced  his  teaching 
in  an  orphan  asylum,  where  a  certain  number  of  children 
were  entrusted  to  him  by  the  commissioners  of  charitable 
institutions.  Napoleon  was  anxious  to  see  for  himself  the 
results  obtained,  and  visited  the  asylum,'  accompanied  by 
Talleyrand,  the  United  States  ambassador,  and  several  other 
distinguished  personages.  He  watched  several  lessons,  and 
was  very  satisfied  with  all  he  saw.  A  Commission  was  then 
appointed  to  render  an  account  of  the  experiment,  and  De 
Wailly,  the  head  of  the  Lycee  Napoleon,  expressed  in  his 
report  the  opinion  that  the  method  might  prove  to  be  very 
useful  for  children  intended  for  the  mechanical  arts. 

1  This  was  told  us  by  Buss  himself. 


220         PESTALOZZI:   HIS  LIFE  AND    WORK. 

"  After  this,  Maine,  of  Biran,  the  sub-prefect  of  Bergerac, 
had  brought  into  Dordogne  a  Burgdorf  master  named  Bar- 
raud,  whom  he  had  entrusted  with  the  management  of  an 
establishment  in  which  he  was  greatly  interested.  Public 
servant  and  philosopher,  he  used  all  his  influence  against 
routine,  never  losing  an  opportunity  of  recommending  the 
application  of  Pestalozzi's  principles  and  of  making  known 
in  public  meetings  and  elsewhere  what  had  already  been  done. 

" '  We  have  just  seen,'  he  says,  on  one  of  these  occasions, 
'  that  this  school,  still  in  its  infancy,  has  nevertheless 
adopted  educational  methods  of  a  very  high  order,  methods, 
indeed,  which  are  entirely  in  accordance  with  man's  nature 
and  the  progressive  development  of  his  faculties.'  (p.  254 
and  following.) 

"  Whilst  every  Government  in  Europe  was  thus  seeking 
to  introduce  a  new  system  of  instruction  into  its  elementary 
schools,  a  private  -American  citizen,  Mr.  MacLure,  endowed 
his  native  country  with  such  an  establishment  of  public 
instruction  as  would  have  compared  favourably  with  any  of 
the  best  European  schools.  A  strange  chance  put  him  in 
the  way  of  thus  effecting  these  great  improvements  in  the 
educational  system  of  his  country.  Being  in  Paris  in  1804, 
and  having  a  great  desire  to  see  Napoleon,  he  applied  for 
assistance  to  the  United  States  ambassador,  who  accordingly 
took  him  with  him  on  the  occasion  of  the  First  Consul's  visit 
to  Naef  to  test  the  results  of  his  experiment  on  the  orphan 
children  that  had  been  entrusted  to  him. 

"  During  the  time  that  the  lessons  lasted,  MacLure  was 
entirely  absorbed  in  the  contemplation  of  Napoleon,  and  saw 
nothing  else  ;  but  on  going  out,  he  heard  Talleyrand  say, 
'This  is  too  much  for  the  people.'  Struck  by  these  words, 
he  went  back  injo  the  room  and  ascertained  from  Naef  the 
object  of  the  meeting.  As.  he  was  profoundly  convinced  of 
the  necessity  of  improving  the  condition  of  the  poor,  he  at 
once  saw  how  much  might  be  done  in  this  direction  by  Pesta- 
lozzi's S}rstem,  and  offered  Naef  the  most  favourable  terms  if 
he  would  go  to  Philadelphia  and  found  a  Pestalozzian  insti- 
tute.' (p.  270  and  following.) 

We  have  spoken  of  Pestalozzi's  success  at  Burgdorf,  and  of 
the  great  reputation  his  institute  had  acquired  in  Switzerland 
and  elsewhere.  He  himself,  however,  did  not  share  in  the 


PESTALOZZPS  INSTITUTE  AT  BURGDORF.    221 

general  admiration,  and  was  by  no  means  satisfied  with  what 
he  had  done.  At  the  end  of  his  life  he  declared  publicly 
that  in  founding  the  Burgdorf  institute  he  had  made  a  mis- 
take. It  may  be  thought  that  this  opinion  was  not  formed 
till  later,  and  was  the  result  of  his  many  troubles,  but,  as  a 
matter  of  fact,  as  early  as  1803  he  felt  himself  out  of  place 
at  Burgdorf,  and,  still  faithful  to  the  dreams  of  his  youth, 
longed  to  leave  the  institute  and  devote  himself  to  founding 
another  poor-school.  That  this  was  his  state  of  mind  is 
evident  from-  a  letter  he  wrote  to  his  friend  Fellenberg,  who 
had  asked  him  to  visit  him. 
Pestalozzi  replied  in  these  words : 

"  A  thousand  thanks  for  your  warm  invitation,  but  I  will 
not  and,  indeed,  cannot  thrust  my  troubles  upon  my  friends. 
It  is  my  duty,  and  it  is  within  my  power,  to  see  to  my  own 
cure.  When  I  have  done  so,  I  shall  be  able  to  enjoy  the 
friendship  of  men ;  but  till  I  am  entirely  satisfied  with  myself 
no  one  can  soothe  my  troubled  heart.  Help  me  to  sell  my 
books,  so  as  to  forward  the  ono  object  of  my  life,  my  poor- 
school.  There,  in  silence  and  retirement,  I  shall  look  for 
such  repose  as  is  to  be  found  behind  bolts  and  bars.  Oh, 
my  friend,  I  can  hardly  express  to  you  the  state  of  internal 
discord  in  which  I  am  living.  The  means,  however,  of  my 
deliverance  increase  daily.  Farewell ;  I  am  a  prey  to  such 
melancholy  as  I  have  never  before  experienced,  but  it  will 
pass  away." 

Meanwhile  the  act  of  mediation  which  had  been  signed  on 
the  19th  of  February,  1803,  had  re-established  Federalism  in 
Switzerland.  The  unitary  Government  ceased  to  exist,  and 
with  it  vanished  all  Pestalozzi's  hopes  of  future  support. 
But  his  work  was  by  this  time  too  well  known  to  be  thus 
easily  destroyed.  The  Governments  of  Aargau,  Lucerne, 
and  Zurich  showed  a  disposition  to  support  the  institute,  the 
last-named  voting  a  sum  of  forty  pounds  towards  the  publi- 
cation of  the  elementary  books.  The  Swiss  Diet,  assembled 
at  Freiburg,  instructed  a  Commission  to  examine  what  could 
be  done  to  help  on  the  fulfilment  of  Pestalozzi's  philan- 
thropic views,  but  we  have  not  been  able  to  discover 
whether  it  ever  published  a  report. 

The  newly  constituted  Government  of  canton  Berne,  how- 


222          PESTALOZZI:   HIS  LIFE  AND    WORK. 

ever,  had  resumed  possession  of  the  castle  of  Burgdorf  and 
made  it  once  more  the  residence  of  the  prefect  of  the  district. 
Although  the  Government  had  little  sympathy  for  Pestalozzi, 
whom  it  considered  a  revolutionary  and  a  friend  of  unitar- 
ism,  it  had  not  been  able  to  leave  his  institute  without  a 
home,  and  had  made  over  to  him  the  use  of  an  old  convent 
at  Munchenbuchsee,  about  three  miles  from  Berne,  and  near 
Emmanuel  Fellenberg's  agricultural  and  philanthropical 
establishment  at  Hofwyl.  It  was  in  June,  1804,  that  Pesta- 
lozzi left  Burgdorf,  and  transferred  his  institute  to  Mun- 
chenbuchsee. 

Before  following  him  to  this  new  centre  of  activity,  we 
must  add  a  few  details  of  his  life  at  Burgdorf,  where  he 
spent,  as  it  seems  to  us,  his  happiest  years. 

After  the  death  of  his  son  in  1801,  his  wife  had  left 
Neuhof  and  rejoined  him  at  Burgdorf.  She  was  low-spirited 
and  in  ill-health  :  and,  being  unable  to  bear  all  the  biistle 
and  noise  of  such  a  large  establishment,  hardly  ever  left  her 
room.  She  managed  the  accoiints,  however,  as  well  as  a 
certain  portion  of  the  correspondence,  for  Pestalozzi  was  too 
preoccupied  and  absent-minded,  too  busy  and  too  impatient, 
to  be  trusted  with  any  work  demanding  regular  and  close 
attention. 

Mrs.  Pestalozzi's  room  was  next  to  the  large  refectory, 
where  Pestalozzi  and  the  masters  took  their  meals  with  the 
pupils.  Prom  this  room,  as  well  as  from  the  balconies  and 
terraces  of  the  Castle,  there  was  a  splendid  view.  At  one's 
feet  lay  the  green  valley  of  the  Emme,  with  its  rich  and 
varied  cultivation,  and  far  away  in  the  distance  were  tin 
snowy  summits  of  the  Oberland  Alps. 

At  this  time  a  part  of  the  Castle  buildings  was  still  used 
as  a  prison  for  the  unfortunate  criminals  of  the  district. 
In  this  connection  Ramsauer  tells  a  most  characteristic 
story : 

"  There  was  a  famous  criminal  called  Bernhard,  big  and 
strong  as  a  giant,  who  had  several  times  escaped  from 
prison,  and  each  time  been  brought  back  to  the  Castle  and 
confined  in  a  still  deeper  dungeon.  On  these  occasions 
Pestalozzi  would  slip  a  piece  of  money  into  his  hands,  say- 
ing :  '  If  you  had  received  a  good  education,  and  had  learned 
to  use  your  powers  for  good  ends,  you  would  now  be  a  useful 


PESTALOZZPS  INSTITUTE  AT  BURGDORF.     223 

member  of  society,  and  instead  of  being  obliged  to  put  you 
in  a  hole  and  chain  you  up  like  a  dog,  people  would  honour 
and  respect  you.'  I  myself,  when  I  could  obtain  permission 
from  Pestalozzi  and  the  gaoler,  used  sometimes  to  visit 
Bernhard,  and,  in  spite  of  his  horrible  underground  cell,  I 
always  did  so  with  pleasure,  for  he  was  a  candid,  straight- 
forward, and  remarkably  intelligent  man." l 

There  is  another  anecdote  of  this  period,  which  shows 
with  what  energy  Pestalozzi  could  overcome  sickness  and 
suffering.  One  day,  when  he  was  confined  to  his  bed  by  a 
sharp  attack  of  rheumatism,  the  French  ambassador,  Hem- 
hard  t.  came  to  the  Castle  to  visit  the  institute.  In  spite  of 
doctor  and  friends,  Pestalozzi  insisted  on  getting  up.  As  he 
could  scarcely  stand,  and  could  only  be  dressed  with  extreme 
difficulty,  everybody  implored  him  to  go  to  bed  again,  point- 
ing out  how  little  fit  he  was  to  do  what  he  wanted;  but  he 
turned  a  deaf  ear  to  all  their  entreaties,  and,  supported  by 
friendly  arms,  painfully  dragged  himself  out  of  his  room.  As 
soon  as  he  saw  the  ambassador,  however,  he  shook  himself 
free,  and  began  eagerly  to  expound  his  doctrine.  The  more 
he  talked,  the  more  he  seemed  to  regain  strength  and  bright- 
ness, and  when  at  last  he  ceased,  his  rheiamatism  had  dis- 
appeared. 

At  the  time  of  which  we  are  speaking,  Fellenberg  and 
Pestalozzi  had  been  friends  for  twenty  years ;  it  will  be  re- 
membered that  portions  of  their  correspondence  have  already 
been  quoted.  Now  it  happened  one  day  that  some  of 
Fellenberg's  workmen  brought  him  a  poorly  dressed  man, 
whom  they  had  found,  they  said,  in  the  fields,  half  dead 
with  hunger  and  fatigue.  This  man  turned  out  to  be  no 
other  than  Pestalozzi,  who,  carried  away  by  his  passion 
for  minerals,  had  wandered  such  a  long  distance  filling  his 
handkerchief  and  pockets  with  them,  that  he  had  lost  his 
way,  and,  at  last,  fallen  down  dead-tired  beside  a  ditch.  It 
was  about  the  same  time,  too,  that  Pestalozzi,  dragging  wearily 
along  one  evening  near  the  gates  of  Soleure,  with  his  handker- 
chief full  of  stones,  was  arrested  by  the  police  as  a  beggar 
and  suspicious  character,  and  taken  before  the  judge.  The 

1  N«teg  on  Pestalozzi,  Ramsauer  and  Zahn,  vol.  i.,  p.  27.  Elberfeld  and 
Meurs,  1846. 


224          PESTALOZZI:  HIS  LIFE  AND    WORK. 

judge  was  out,  and  the  old  man  had  to  wait  a  long  time  in 
the  ante-chamber  with  his  custodian.  Great  was  the  latter's 
astonishment  when  the  judge,  on  his  return,  recognized 
Pestalozzi,  and,  after  greeting  him  warmly,  invited  him  to 
supper. 

Fellenberg  was  a  skilful  agriculturist  and  an  excellent  ad- 
ministrator. Though  a  man  of  noble  and  lofty  views,  he 
was  eminently  practical,  and  his  activity  was  always  wisely 
directed.  He  possessed,  indeed,  in  a  marked  degree  the 
very  qualities  which  Pestalozzi  lacked.  He  had  voluntarily 
renounced  the  brilliant  career  that  his  birth  and  talents 
would  assuredly  have  thrown  open  to  him,  in  order  to 
devote  his  fortune  and  ability  to  undertakings  of  public 
utility. 

His  establishments  at  Hofwyl  had  the  double  object  of 
forming  active,  intelligent,  and  honest  workmen  amongst 
the  poor,  and  skilled  agriculturists  amongst  the  rich.  It  was 
obvious,  therefore,  that  tho  two  friends  could  be  of  much 
assistance  to  each  other  in  their  respective  undertakings, 
and  Fellenberg  suggested  to  the  old  man  that  they  should 
work  together,  Fellenberg  taking  entire  control  of  the 
financial  department,  and  Pestalozzi,  freed  from  responsi- 
bilities for  which  he  had  neither  taste  nor  capacity,  con- 
trolling the  combined  establishments  in  all  educational 
matters. 

At  first  Pestalozzi  accepted ;  but  he  and  Fellenberg  were 
made  rather  to  respect  each  other  than  to  live  together. 
There  was  as  much  difference  in  their  characters  and  ways 
of  thinking  and  feeling  as  in  their  habits  and  outward 
appearance.  Fellenberg,  though  at  bottom  kind  and  gener- 
ous, had  a  stern,  masterful  manner.  Pestalozzi,  who  used  to 
call  him  "  the  man  of  iron,"  found  the  partnership  anything 
but  helpful,  and  could  not  make  up  his  mind  to  remain  at 
M  unchenbuchsee. 

Several  towns  were  anxious  to  receive  him,  amongst 
others  Payerne,  Yverdun,  and  Rolle  in  the  canton  of  Vaud. 
Thinking  that  to  be  established  in  a  French-speaking  coun- 
try would  encourage  the  spread  of  his  method,  he  chose 
Yverdun. 

"  He  left  Munchenbuchsee,  then,  on  the  18th  of  October, 
1804,  after  having  taken  a  touching  farewell  of  his  masters 


PESTALOZZPS  INSTITUTE  AT  BURG  DO  RF.     225 

and  pupils.  He  arrived  at  Yverdun  without  knowing  what 
would  become  of  him,  and  so  entirely  destitute  of  resources, 
that  he  had  to  share  a  single  room  with  Krusi  and  Niederer. 
He  was  living  thus  when  he  received  a  present  of  four 
pounds  from  the  King  of  Denmark,  as  a  token  of  gratitude 
for  the  hospitality  that  he  had  shown  to  two  Danes  (Torlitz 
and  Strohm)  who  had  been  sent  by  their  Government  to 
Burgdorf  to  study  his  method. 

"But  however  pressing  his  personal  needs  may  have  been, 
his  first  thought  was  for  his  friendless  children,  whom 
Fellenberg  had  been  very  reluctant  to  keep.  He  now  sent 
for  them,  and  placed  them  with  Buss  arid  Barraud,  who  at 
that  time  were  laying  the  foundations  of  a  Pestalozzian 
institute  at  Yverdun."  (Pompee,  p.  141.) 

The  castle  of  Yverdun  needed  thorough  repair  before  an 
institute  could  be  opened  in  it.  The  work,  however,  pro- 
ceeded so  slowly,  that  Pestalozzi  decided,  in  the  meantime, 
to  open  a  temporary  school  in  a  small  set  of  rooms  looking 
on  the  Rue  du  Four,  in  a  house  which  to-day  is  No.  51,  Rue 
du  Milieu. 

Pestalozzi  had  left  behind  him  at  Munchenbuchsee  about 
seventy  pupils,  with  Tobler,  de  Muralt,  Schmidt,  von  Tiirck,1 
Steiner,  and  a  few  under-masters.  Tobler,  who  was  per- 
fectly capable  in  every  respect,  had  been  entrusted  with  the 
management  of  all  educational  matters,  but  Fellenberg, 
though  he  was  only  supposed  to  control  the  finance,  soon 
began  to  exercise  an  undue  influence  in  everything. 

To  show  the  effect  of  this  influence  on  the  institute  we 
cannot  do  better  than  quote  the  following  passage  from 
Ramsauer : 

"  At  Munchenbuchsee  I  was  unhappy  for  the  first  time  in 
my  life.  I  was  still  table-boy  and  under-master,  but  I  had 
nobody  to  comfort  my  heart.  We  missed  particularly  the 
love  and  warmth  which  pervaded  everything  at  Burgdorf, 

1  Von  Tiirck,  an  Oldenburg  magistrate,  had  been  sent  by  the  Grand  Duke 

?  to  Burgdorf.     He  published  a  book  called  Letters  fiom  Mun-henhuctis-e, 

which  was  one  of  the  first  works  to  give  a  clear  account  of  Pestalozzi's 

method,  and  one  of  those  that  most  helped  to  make  it  known  in  Gpr- 

Iinauy.  He  afterwards  opened  a  boarding-school  in  Yverdun,  the  pupils 
of  which  attended  the  day-classes  in  Pestalozzi's  institute. 


226        PESTALOZZI:    HIS  LIFE  AND    WORK. 

and  made  us  all  so  happy.  With  Pestalozzi  the  heart  was 
first,  with  Fellenberg,  the  mind.  .  .  . 

"  And  yet  Munchenbuchsee  had  its  good  points  too  ;  there 
was  more  order  there,  and  we  learned  more  than  at  Burg- 
dorf.  .  .  . 

"In  February,  1805,  to  my  great  joy,  Pestalozzi  sent  for 
me  to  go  back  to  him  to  Yverdun,  where  I  once  more  found 
a  father's  love,  and  my  dear  masters,  Krusi  and  Buss.  A 
few  months  later  the  whole  institute  had  rejoined  Pestalozzi 
in  Yverdun  Castle." 


CHAPTER  XH. 

PESTALOZZl'S  BOOKS  AND  METHOD  AT  BURGDORF. 

"How  Gertrude  Teaches  Her  Children"  "How  to  Teach 
Spelling  and  Beading."  "  Book  for  Mothers."  Elementary 
Teaching  on  Number  and  form.  "  The  Natural  School- 
master." 

PESTALOZZI  had  no  sooner  opened  Iris  institute  at  Burgdorf 
than  he  was  anxious  to  give  the  public  some  more  complete 
account  than  they  had  yet  had  of  his  life  work  and  of  the 
views  which  he  was  endeavouring  to  put  into  practice.  He 
accordingly  published  the  book  entitled:  How  Gertrude 
Teaclies  Her  Children;  an  Attempt  to  Show  Mothers  how 
they  can  Teach  their  Children  Themselves. 

Morf,  whose  estimate  of  Pestalozzi's  work  at  Stanz  we 
have  already  quoted,  speaks  of  this  book  as  follows : 

"  This  book  is  the  most  important  and  the  most  carefully 
thought  out  of  all  Pestalozzi's  pedagogical  writings.  Not 
only  was  its  importance  great  at  the  time  at  which  it 
appeared,  but  it  will  remain  great  for  ever.  The  true  char- 
acteristics of  his  genius  stand  out  free  as  yet  from  all  foreign 
influence.  His  own  thoughts,  expressed  in  his  own  words, 
give  us  the  most  faithful  picture  of  this  noble  heart.  We 
are  filled  with  admiration  at  the  fulness  of  his  intuitions — 
I  might  almost  say  of  the  revelations  of  which  Providence 
had  made  him  the  instrument.  From  the  beginning  to  the 
end  of  this  work  our  attention  and  interest  never  flag. 
Here  and  there  we  may  object  to  certain  of  his  methods, 
but  never  to  his  principles  and  conclusions.  And  even 
though  experience  has  enabled  us  to  improve  on  certain 
points,  we  are  bound  to  admit  with  gratitude  that  this 
improvement  has  only  been  reached  by  following  the 
lines  originally  laid  down  by  Pestalozzi.  This  book  is 
to-day  and  will  ever  remain  the  foundation  stone  of  all 


228          PESTALOZZ1:  HIS  LIFE  AND    WORK. 

instruction  for  the  people,  but  its  hidden  treasures  are  still 
far  from  having  been  all  put  into  practice,  and  we  cannot 
too  earnestly  urge  all  those  who  are  engaged  or  interested 
in  education  to  make  a  serious  study  of  it." 

We  must,  however,  add  that  this  book  is  by  no  means 
free  from  the  defects  of  most  of  Pestalozzi's  writings.  The 
author  is  too  easily  carried  away  by  his  heart  and  imagina- 
tion ;  the  wealth  and  abundance  of  his  ideas  interfere  with  the 
order  of  the  general  plan  and  the  proportion  of  the  various 
parts.  The  digressions  and  repetitions  are  innumerable, 
though  it  is  fair  to  say  that  when  the  same  ideas  reappear, 
it  is  always  in  a  new  light. 

A  simple  analysis  of  the  work  would  give  but  a  very 
imperfect  idea  of  it ;  we  prefer  to  run  rapidly  through  it 
with  our  readers,  calling  attention  to  the  most  essential 
principles,  and  translating  the  most  characteristic  passages. 

The  book  consists  of  fifteen  letters  addressed  to  Gessner. 
The  first,  which  briefly  reviews  the  author's  life  and  work, 
and  his  efforts  towards  raising  the  people,  begins  thus : 

"  My  dear  Gessner,  you  say  that  it  is  time  I  made  some 
public  statement  of  my  ideas  about  the  education  of  the 
people.  I  shall  be  only  too  glad  to  do  so,  and  will  en- 
deavour in  a  series  of  letters  to  set  forth  my  views  as 
clearly  as  possible. 

"  Seeing  popular  education  lying  before  me  like  an  im- 
measurable swamp,  I  plunged  into  its  slime,  and,  by  ex- 
erting all  my  strength,  waded  toilsomely  through,  till  I 
at  last  discovered  the  sources  of  its  waters,  the  reason  of 
their  stagnation,  and  the  means  of  reclaiming  the  ground. 

"  I  will  now  take  you  with  me  for  a  moment  into  this 
labyrinth,  from  which,  by  good  fortune  rather  than  by  good 
judgment,  I  have  at  last  found  a  way  out." 

After  giving  a  description  of  the  intellectual  poverty 
in  which  the  schools  of  his  time  left  the  people,  and  the 
history  of  his  various  unsuccessful  attempts  to  remedy  it, 
Pestalozzi  proceeds  to  sum  up  the  aim  of  his  work  as 
follows : 

"  Ah,  how  happy  I  shall  be  in  my  grave  if  in  what  I  am 
doing  for  popular  education  I  can  succeed  in  uniting  Nature 


BOOKS  AND  METHOD  AT  BURGDORF.        229 

and  Art,  now  so  widely  separated !  That  they  should  be 
separated  at  all  is  sad  enough,  but  that  the  wickedness  of 
men  should  have  so  opposed  them  to  each  other  as  to  render 
them  utterly  incompatible,  fills  me  with  indignation." 

The  second  and  third  letters  relate  Pestalozzi's  meeting 
with  Krusi,  Tobler,  and  Buss,  and  the  valuable  assistance 
that  these  men  had  rendered  to  him  and  his  work. 

The  fourth,  fifth,  and  sixth  set  forth  the  general  prin- 
ciples of  his  method. 

In  the  fourth  he  endeavours  to  formulate  the  laws  of 
instruction. 

In  the  fifth  he  begins  by  declaring  that  these  laws  do  not 
satisfy  him  because  he  cannot  find  any  general  principle 
to  express  their  essential  character.  He  then  goes  on  to 
search  for  the  natural  sources  of  human  knowledge.- 

In  the  sixth  letter  Pestalozzi  says  that  in  spite  of  the 
trouble  he  is  taking  to  explain  his  views,  he  is  doing  it 
very  imperfectly,  because  for  twenty  years  he  has  lost  the 
power  of  philosophizing ;  that  is,  of  expressing  his  ideas  in 
a  philosophical  manner.  He  points  out  that  for  many" 
centuries,  reading,  writing,  and  arithmetic  have  been 
regarded  as  the  elements  of  instruction,  but  that  they  are 
not  really  the  elements.  His  investigations  have  shown 
him  that  the  true  elements  are  sound  (language),  number, 
and  form.  At  every  new  appearance,  we  ask  :  What  is  rtrf 
(name),  How  many  objects  ?  (number),  What  is  it  like  ? 
(form).  In  thus  reducing  instruction  to  its  really  simplest 
elements,  we  bring  Art  into  harmony  with  Nature,  for  in 
this  way  all  knowledge  is  made  to  result  from  the  very  first 
manifestations  by  which  Nature  acts  on  men. 

The  seventh  letter  is  devoted  to  the  elementary  teaching 
of  language,  but  Pestalozzi  afterwards  considerably  modi- 
fied, and  in  many  cases  entirely  abandoned,  the  methods 
which  are  here  described. 

The  eighth  is  concerned  with  the  elementary  teaching 
of  form  by  sense-impression,  from  which  the  child  learns  to 
.judge  of  size,  to  draw,  and  to  write. 

He  must  first  be  made  familiar  with  the  simple  elements 
of  all  form:  straight  lines,  angles,  etc.,  and  be  taught  to 
measure  their  length  and  size  with  his  eye.  Only  when  he 
has  done  this  will  he  be  able  to  draw  successfully,  reproduce 


230          PESTALOZZI:  HIS  LIFE  AND    WORK. 

on  his  slate,  that  is,  the  various  lines,  angles,  and  simple 
figures  which  are  put  before  him. 

These  first  lessons  in  linear  drawing  serve  to  train  his 
eye  and  hand,  and  are  thus  a  preparation  for  writing.  He 
writes  at  first  on  his  slate,  beginning  with  the  easiest  letters, 
and  with  words  formed  from  them.  Before  very  long,  how- 
ever, he  will  be  able  to  use  pen  and  paper. 

In  teaching  drawing,  Pestalozzi  makes  great  use  of  the 
square,  which  possesses  several  important  advantages  : 

In  the  first  place,  it  serves  in  ordinary  drawing  as  a  sort 
of  basis  for  an  infinite  number  of  rectangular  figures  and 
patterns  that  the  child  can  invent,  vary,  and  develop,  ac- 
cording to  his  fancy.  In  the  next  place,  if  divided  into 
smaller  squares  or  rectangles,  it  furnishes  an  admirable  sense- 
impressing  introduction  to  the  study  of  geometry  and  the 
measurement  of  surfaces. 

Lastly,  this  division  of  the  square  produces  the  table  of 
fractions  of  fractions,  by  the  help  of  which  children  acquire 
great  facility  in  mental  calculations  with  fractions. 

Pestalozzi  then  speaks  of  the  elementary  books  that  he 
is  planning :  The  ABC  of  Sense-Impression,  and  the  Book 
for  Mothers.  He  hopes  that  these  books  will  enable  mothers 
to  instruct  their  children  themselves. 

It  must  be  observed  that  these  sense-impressing  lessons 
in  form,  as  they  are  described  in  this  letter,  were  somewhat 
modified  by  Pestalozzi  as  his  experiment  progressed. 

The  ninth  letter  treats  of  the  elementary  teaching  of 
numbers  by  sense-impression.  The  author  begins  by  pointing 
out  that,  in  the  study  of  language  and  form,  certain  means 
and  ideas  have  to  be  made  use  of  which  are  foreign  to  the 
particular  end.  Amongst  these  is  the  testimony  of  the 
senses,  often  so  liable  to  error.  On  the  other  hand,  operations 
with  numbers  need  no  outside  help,  and  always  furnish  us 
with  exact  results.  Certain  other  sciences  furnish  \is  with 
exact  results,  too  ;  but  this  is  only  because  they  depend  on 
the  science  of  numbers.  Hence  the  immense  importance 
of  this  subject  of  instruction,  which  not  only  develops  the 
intellect,  but  is  of  such  great  practical  utility. 

Pestalozzi  then  shows  that  all  arithmetical  calculation 
consists  in  increasing  or  decreasing  numbers  by  various 
methods  which  are  simply  intended  to  shorten  the  repetition 
of  the  formula  :  one  and  one  are  two,  one  from  two  is>  one 


BOOKS  AND  METHOD  AT  BURG  DO  RF.        231 

Bnt  these  abbreviations,  which  are  all  that  is  learnt  in  the 
school,  have  the  disadvantage  of  becoming  a  mere  matter 
of  memory,  and  of  destroying  the  intuitive  conception-  of 
number.  Thus  we  may  have  learnt  by  heart  that  four  and 
three  are  seven,  and  feel  that  we  have  reached  a  certain 
definite  result;  but  this  result  is  not  really  ours,  we  have 
accepted  it  on  trust,  possibly  without  even  knowing  what 
the  number  seven  represents.  Without  sense-impressing 
exercises  the  child  can  know  nothing  of  numbers  themselves; 
he  can  only  know  their  names,  and  these  may- remain  entirely 
without  meaning  for  him  for  a  long  time. 

For  these  exercises  Pestalozzi  first  employs  his  "  table  of 
units,"  in  which  each  unit  is  represented  by  a  line,  so  that 
up  to  a  hundred  the  child  can  make  all  operations  of  addition, 
subtraction,  multiplication  and  division,  as  it  were  by  sight. 
And  so  afterwards,  when  he  works  in  his  head,  he  has  a 
clear  and  exact  idea  of  the  numbers  he  uses,  because  he 
always  thinks  of  them  as  collections  of  lines,  and  sees  the 
numbers  themselves  instead  of  the  conventional  figures  which 
represent  them. 

Then  comes  the  "  table  of  fractions,"  which  was  composed 
of  squares,  some  whole,  others  divided  horizontally  into 
two,  three,  or  even  ten  equal  parts.  From  this  the  child 
learnt  by  sense-impression  to  count  these  parts  of  the  unit, 
to  form  them  into  wholes,  etc. 

Then  comes  a  "  table  of  fractions  of  fractions,"  in  which 
the  squares  were  divided  not  only  horizontally,  but  vertically, 
so  that  the  method  for  reducing  two  fractions  to  the  same 
denominator  was  self-evident. 

In  all  these  sense-impressing  exercises  on  numbers,  it  is 
cliiefly  the  attention,  observation,  and  judgment  of  the  child 
which  are  brought  into  play,  and  which,  with  a  little  help 
from  the  master,  teach  him  to  find  out  for  himself  what  he 
has  to  learn,  and  state  it  in  his  own  words.  It  would  be  a 
great  mistake  to  see  nothing  but  an  exercise  of  memory  in 
all  this. 

This  part  of  the  method  was  still  further  developed  and 
improved  by  Pestalozzi  after  the  publication  of  the  work 
we  are  considering. 

The  tenth  letter  treats  of  sense-impression,  as  Pestalozzi 
calls  all  direct  and  experimental  perception,  whether  in  the 
physical  or  moral  world.  Sense-impressed  ideas  are  those 


232          PESTALOZZI:  HIS  LIFE  AND    WORK. 

which  result  immediately  from  these  perceptions.  Descrip- 
tions, explanations,  and  definitions  will  all  remain  without 
effect  on  the  child's  mind,  unless  he  has  already  acquired 
a  basis  of  sense-impressed  ideas  for  them  to  rest  upon.  That 
being  granted,  we  can  sum  up  this  whole  letter  in  a  few  lines. 
Sense-impression  is  the  only  basis  of  instruction,  but  for 
a  very  long  time  it  has  been  completely  neglected  in  educa- 
tion. After  the  invention  of  printing,  the  value  of  books 
was  strangely  exaggerated.  Books  were  confused  with 
knowledge,  words  with  ideas.  Nothing  but  books  was 
employed  in  the  schools,  and  men  thought  that  by  teaching 
the  child  to  read—  articulate,  that  is,  the  sound  of  different 
groups  of  letters — they  were  throwing  open  to  him  the  gate 
of  universal  knowledge.  And  so 'men  of  books  and  words 
were  made, — men  of  letters,  indeed,  but  in  the  narrowest 
and  most  literal  acceptation  of  the  term, — and  that  un- 
ceasing and  irrational  love  of  talk  began,  which  misleads 
and  bewilders  us  by  a  deluge  of  words  to  which,  in  most 
men's  minds,  there  are  no  precise  ideas  to  correspond. 

I  It  was  the  same,  too,  for  the  moral  and  religious  develop- 
'  ment.  After  the  Reformation,  the  mania  for  dogmatizing 
was  carried  even  into  the  education  of  little  children,  in 
order  that  they  might  be  trained  betimes  in  the  methods 
of  controversy.  Instead  of  trying  to  open  their  hearts  to 
the  sentiments  of  faith,  piety  and  virtue,  people  began  by 
making  them  commit  a  catechism  to  memory ;  a  set  of 
abstract  doctrines,  that  is,  which  could  do  little  either  for 
the  minds  or  hearts  of  young  children.  Here  again  teaching 
is  concerned  with  nothing  but  words. 

In  acting  thus  for  so  long,  the  schools  were  not  only 
forsaking  the  path  of  Nature,  but  entirely  neglecting  the 
valuable  impressions  that  spring  from  the  direct  observation 
of  things  and  life,  as  well  as  all  questions  of  personal  and 
practical  virtue. 

Pestalozzi  finishes  this  letter  in  the  following  words : 

"  Europe,  with  its  system  of  popular  instruction,  wag 
bound  sooner  or  later  to  fall  into  error,  or  rather  into  the 
disorder  which  is  threatening  to  ruin  society.  On  the  one 
hand,  an  immense  height  has  been  reached  in  science  and 
art ;  on  the  other,  the  very  foundations  of  a  natural  culture 
for  the  mass  of  the  people  have  been  lost.  Just  as  no  part 


BOOKS  AND  METHOD  AT  BURGDORF.        233 

of  the  world  has  ever  before  risen  so  high,  so  none  has 
ever  fallen  so  low.  Our  continent  is  like  the  colossus 
spoken  of  by  the  prophet;  its  head  of  gold  reaches  to 
the  clouds,  but  the  feet  which  should  support  it  are  of 
clay.  .  .  . 

"  In  Europe  the  cultxire  of  the  people  has  ended  by  becoming 
an  empty  chattering,  fatal  alike  to  real  faith  and  real  know- 
ledge ;  an  instruction  of  mere  words  and  outward  show, 
unsubstantial  as  a  dream,  and  not  only  absolutely  incapable 
of  giving  us  the  quiet  wisdom  of  faith  and  love,  but  bound, 
sooner  or  later,  to  lead  us  into  incredulity  and  supersti- 
tion, egotism  and  hardness  of  heart.  But  however  this 
may  be,  the  development  of  the  mania  for  words  and  books, 
which  pervades  our  whole  system  of  popular  education, 
has  undoubtedly  taught  us  at  least  one  thing,  and  that 
is,  that  it  is  impossible  for  us  to  remain  any  longer  as  we 
are. 

"  Everything  confirms"  me  in  my  opinion  that  the  only 
way  of  escaping  a  civil,  moral  and  religious  degradation, 
is  to  have  done  with  the  superficiality,  narrowness,  and 
other  errors  of  our  popular  instruction,  and  recognize  sense- 
impression  as  the  real  foundation  of  all  knowledge." 

In  the  eleventh  letter,  Pestalozzi  speaks  of  self-impression 
as  being  the  method  employed  by  a  mother.  Prompted  by 
her  instinct  and  her  affection,  she  introduces  her  child  to 
Nature,  now  leading  it  nearer  to  distant  objects,  now 
bringing  it  those  by  which  it  is  attracted.  She  does  this 
either  to  soothe  her  child  or  amuse  it ;  she  has  as  yet 
no  thought  of  teaching,  and  yet  she  is  thus  supplying  the 
first  and  most  indispensable  element  of  all  instruction. 
Why  does  the  art  of  teaching  refuse  to  build  upon  these 
simple  and  precious  foundations  ?  The  Swiss  mother  hangs 
over  her  child's  cradle  a  coloured  paper-bird,  which  thus 
becomes  the  object  of  its  first  regards,  first  gestures  and 
first  games.  In  doing  this  she  is  opening  a  path  in  which 
we  should  do  well  to  follow.  The  first  part  of  the  Book 
for  Mothers  (it  was  not  yet  written)  will  show  how  this 
good  beginning  may  be  continued  by  sense-impressing 
exercises  in  form,  number  and  language.  Words  that  are 
imperfectly  understood  may  affect  the  whole  future  develop- 
ment of  the  child,  for  they  introduce  an  element  of  confusion 
17 


234          PESTALOZZI:   HIS  LIFE  AND    WORK. 

into  his  mental  conceptions,  an  element  of  unsoundness  into 
his  judgments.  Many  of  our  contemporaries  are  striking 
instances  of  this. 

"  The  course  of  Nature  in  the  development  of  humanity 
is  invariable,  it  is  therefore  impossible  that  there  should 
be  two  equally  good  methods  of  teaching.  One  only  i.s 
good,  and  it  is  that  which  is  entirely  based  upon  the  eternal 
laws  of  Nature ;  the  others  are  bad  precisely  in  proportion 
to  their  neglect  of  these  laws.  Neither  I  nor  any  other 
man  am  as  yet  in  possession  of  this  one  good  method,  nor 
can  we  hope  to  do  more  than  reach  it  slowly  and  gradually." 

Further  on,  afcer  saying  that  the  child  must  first  be 
taught  tc  s^e  properly  and  properly  describe  what  he  sees, 
and  that  definitions  should  not  come  till  afterwards,  Pesta- 
lozzi  adds : 

"  The  wisdom  produced  by  premature  definitions  is  like 
the  mushroom,  which  grows  fast  in  the  rain,  but  dies  at  the 
first  touch  of  the  sun. 

"  The  child  must  learn  the  first  elements  perfectly  and 
completely. 

"  Any  incompleteness  will  be  a  defect  that  will  always 
make  itself  felt,  and  tend  to  prevent  his  nature  from  de- 
veloping in  its  entirety.  This  is  as  true  of  the  mind  as 
of  a  garden. 

"  The  empire  of  the  senses  must  be  subordinated  to  the 
essential  end  of  our  nature ;  that  is,  to  the  moral  spiritual 
law.  .  .  .  It  is  only  his  inner  spiritual  life  that  can 
give  a  man  self-control,  freedom  and  contentment.  .  .  . 
The  education  of  our  race,  then,  must  be  dissociated  from 
our  sensual  nature  ;  which  is,  blind,  and  leads  only  to  death, 
and  entrusted  to  our  moral  and  spiritual  nature,  which  is 
Divine  and  eternal." 

In  the  twelfth  letter,  Pestalozzi  begins  by  calling  attention 
to  what  he  had  said  twenty  years  before,  in  the  preface  to 
Leonard  and  Gertrude  : 

"  I  stand  aloof  from  men's  quarrels  about  their  opinions ; 
but  whatever  makes  them  pious,  honest,  believing,  and 
gentle,  whatever  can  bring  the  love  of  Grod  and  their 


BOOKS   AND  METHOD  AT  BURGDORF.        235 

neighbour  into  their  hearts,  and  happiness  and  blessing  into 
their  homes,  that,  I  fancy,  is  beyond  dispute,  and  is  accepted 
by  all." 

He  then  points  out  that  his  educational  work  is  indepen- 
dent of  the  opinions  by  which  men  are  divided,  and  that 
his  method  is  therefore  beneficial  for  all  nations,  no  matter 
what  their  religious  faith  or  form  of  government.  This 
explains  why  he  henceforth  avoids  all  dogmatism  in  speak- 
ing of  religion.  And  yet,  in  all  he  does  he  relies  on  God's 
providence,  often  even,  though  with  less  definiteness,  on 
redemption  through  Jesus  Christ.  He  knew  that,  in  the 
minds  of  that  portion  of  humanity  to  which  he  was  address- 
ing himself,  these  two  points  were  "  beyond  dispute,"  but 
to-day,  when  such  an  illusion  would  no  longer  be  possible, 
what  would  he  do  ?  Would  he  think  it  possible  to  do  with- 
out God  in  education  ?  We  cannot  believe  it.  So  far  as 
instruction  in  the  proper  sense  of  the  word  is  concerned, 
his  method  is,  it  is  true,  independent  of  religion,  but  in  the 
school,  as  in  the  home,  it  is  impossible  to  give  even  in- 
struction without  the  help  of  the  child's  will,  and  the  will 
depends  upon  the  moral  development.  Moral  education, 
therefore,  is  intimately  connected  with  the  rest  of  the 
master's  work ;  it  is  an  integral,  necessary  part  of  an  in- 
divisible organism.  "  And  this  moral  development,"  says 
Pestalozzi,  "results  from  the  influence  of  a  pious  mother 
who  prays  with  her  child." 

Further  on,  Pestalozzi  declares  that  he  is  far  from  having 
settled  the  whole  question  of  education ;  that  in  his  endeavour 
to  help  the  people  he  has  only  discovered  a  few  leading 
principles,  and  that  he  deplores  his  incapacity  to  formulate 
and  apply  them  more  thoroughly. 

"  And  so  when  I  affirm  positively  that  all  a  man's  powers 
are  part  of  an  organic  whole,  I  by  no  means  wish  to  imply 
that  I  am  thoroughly  acquainted  either  with  this  organism 
or  its  laws ;  and  when  I  say  that,  in  teaching,  a  rational 
method  must  be  followed,  I  do  not  pretend  either  to  have 
always  pursued  this  method,  or  to  have  worked  out  all  its 
details." 

Pestalozzi  then  goes  on  to  say  that  though  he  has  devoted 


236          PESTALOZZI:  HIS  LIFE  AND    WORK. 

his  life  to  efforts  to  help  the  people,  he  has  never  yet 
succeeded.  He  recognizes  that  the  fault  is  his  own,  and, 
deeply  repentant,  concludes  sorrowfully  thus  : 

"  I  have  lost  everything  and  lost  myself ;  and  yet,  0 
God,  Thou  hast  kept  my  life's  desire  alive  within  me.  Thou 
hast  not  blotted  out  before  me  the  aim  which  has  caused 
my  sorrows,  as  Thou  dost  before  so  many  thousands  who 
ruin  their  own  lives,  but  Thou  hast  preserved  my  work  in 
spite  of  my  errors.  I  was  drawing  near  to  my  tomb  in  hope- 
lessness, but  Thou  hast  filled  my  evening  with  brightness  and 
softened  the  sorrows  of  my  life.  I  am  not  worthy,  Lord, 
of  Thy  compassion  and  trust.  Thou  alone  hast  had  pity  on 
the  crushed  worm ;  Thou  hast  not  broken  the  bruised  reed, 
nor  quenched  the  smoking  flax,  nor  hast  Thou  ever  averted 
Thy  face  from  the  offering  which,  from  my  childhood,  I  have 
striven,  but  striven  in  vain,  to  bring  to  the  outcasts  of  the 
world." 

The  thirteenth  letter  begins  with  a  digression  upon  the 
abuse  of  language.  When  from  the  outset  language  is  the 
spontaneous  and  faithful  expression  of  thought,  it  is  at  the 
same  time  its  principal  means  of  development,  and  gives  it 
force  and  precision  ;  but  when  from  childhood  it  is  but  the 
repetition  or  imitation  of  other  people's  language,  when  the 
words  it  employs  express  ideas  which  are  still  unfamiliar 
to  him  who  pronounces  them,  then  language  does  little  to 
develop  thought,  nay,  it  paralyzes  and  destroys  it.  Hence 
the  empty,  idle  babbling  that  fills  the  world. 

Pestalozzi  then  comes  back  to  the  reform  of  elementary 
education,  and  points  out  yet  another  need  which  it  must 
satisfy. 

Knowledge  is  not  everything ;  judgment  and  readiness 
in  action  are  also  necessary.  The  practical  powers  also 
require  that  the  senses  and  limbs  should  be  subjected  to 
a  graduated  series  of  exercises,  beginning  with  what  is 
simplest  and  easiest.  The  power  of  applying  what  we 
know  depends  for  its  development  upon  the  same  organic 
laws  as  regulate  the  acquisition  of  knowledge. 

The  organism  of  Nature  is  the  same  in  man  as  in  plants 
and  animals ;  it  regulates  alike  his  physical  nature,  hia 
moral  nature,  and  the  development  of  his  practical  powers. 


BOOKS  AND  METHOD  AT  BURGDORF.        237 

Humanity  in  its  deepest  degradation  never  loses  the 
sense  of  the  need  there  is  for  developing  its  practical  side 
for  the  purpose  of  obtaining  the  necessaries  of  life. 

Just  as  an  A  B  C  of  intellectual  development  is  necessary, 
so  must  we  have  an  A  B  C  of  practical  development ;  for  as 
a  child's  knowledge  and  intelligence  are  confused  by  putting 
definitions  before  actual  experience,  so  his  heart  and 
conscience  are  confused  by  talking  to  him  of  faith  and 
virtue  before  he  has  had  any  actual  experience  of  what 
faith  and  virtue  really  are. 

The  fourteenth  and  fifteenth  letters,  which  end  the  work, 
are  devoted  to  the  question  of  moral  and  religious  develop- 
ment. Here  we  must  let  Pestalozzi  speak  for  himself : 

"  I  am  unwilling  to  bring  these  letters  to  an  end  without 
touching  on  what  I  may  call  the  key-stone  of  my  whole 
svstem.  Is  the  love  of  God  encouraged  by  these  principles 
which  I  hold  to  be  the  only  sound  basis  for  the  development 
of  humanity  ? 

"  Once  again  I  look  into  my  own  heart  for  an  answer  to 
my  question,  and  ask  myself :  '  How  does  the  idea  of  God 
take  root  in  my  soul  ?  Whence  comes  it  that  I  believe  in 
God,  that  I  abandon  myself  to  Him,  and  feel  happy  when. 
I  love  Him  and  trust  Him,  thank  Him  and  obey  Him  ?  ' 

"  Then  I  soon  see  that  the  sentiments  of  love,  trust,  grati- 
tude and  obedience  must  first  exist  in  my  heart  before  I 
can  feel  them  for  God.  I  must  love  men,  trust  them,  thank 
them  and  obey  them,  before  I  can  rise  to  loving,  thanking, 
trusting  and  obeying  God.  '  For  he  who  loveth  not  his 
brother  whom  he  hath  seen,  how  shall  he  love  his  Father 
in  heaven  whom  he  hath  not  seen  ?  ' 

"  I  next  ask  myself,  '  How  is  it  that  I  come  to  love  men, 
to  trust  them,  to  thank  them  and  obey  them?  How  do 
these  sentiments  take  root  in  my  heart  ?'  And  I  find  that 
it  is  principally  through  the  relations  which  exist  between 
a  mother  and  her  infant  child. 

"  The  mother  must  care  for  her  child,  feed  it,  protect  it, 
amuse  it.  She  cannot  do  otherwise  ;  her  strongest  instincts 
impel  her  to  this  course.  And  so  she  provides  for  its  needs, 
and  in  every  possible  way  makes  up  for  its  powerlessness. 
Thus  the  child  is  cared  for  and  made  happy,  and  the  first 
seed  of  love  is  sown  within  him. 


238          PESTALOZZI:  HIS  LIFE  AND    WORK. 

"  Presently  the  child's  eyes  fall  on  something  he  has  never 
yet  seen  ;  seized  with  wonder  and  fear,  he  utters  a  cry ;  his 
mother  presses  him  to  her  bosom,  plays  with  him,  diverts 
his  attention,  and  his  tears  cease,  though  his  eyes  long 
remain  wet.  Should  the  unfamiliar  object  be  seen  again, 
the  mother  shelters  the  child  in  her  arms,  and  smiles  at  h..m 
as  before.  This  time,  instead  of  crying,  he  answers  his 
mother's  smile  by  smiling  himself,  and  the  first  seed  of 
trust  is  sown. 

"  His  mother  runs  to  his  cradle  at  his  least  sign ;  if  he  is 
hungry,  she  is  there  ;  if  thirsty,  she  satisfies  him ;  when  he 
hears  her  step,  he  is  content;  when  he  sees  her,  he  stretches 
out  his  hand  and  fastens  his  eyes  upon  her  bosom  ;  to  him, 
his  mother  and  the  satisfaction  of  his  hunger  are  one  and 
the  same  thing ;  he  is  grateful. 

"  These  germs  of  love,  trust  and  gratitude  soon  develop. 
The  child  knows  his  mother's  step ;  he  smiles  at  her  shadow ; 
he  loves  whatever  is  like  her;  a  creature  of  the  same 
appearance  as  his  mother  is,  in  his  eyes,  a  good  creature. 
Those  whom  his  mother  loves,  he  loves ;  those  whom  she 
kisses,  he  kisses.  This  smile  at  the  likeness  of  his  mother 
is  a  smile  at  humanity,  and  the  seed  of  brotherly  love,  the 
love  of  his  fellow-men,  is  sown. 

"  Obedience,  in  its  origin,  is  opposed  to  the  child's  first 
instincts,  and  would  never  result  from  them  naturally;  and 
yet  it  is  upon  these  instincts  that  the  educator  must  base 
his  efforts  to  teach  it.  ... 

"  The  child  cries  before  he  has  learnt  patience  ;  he  is 
impatient  before  he  has  learnt  to  obey.  Patience  comes 
before  obedience,  and  is  necessary  to  the  child  before  he 
can  obey.  The  first  manifestations  of  obedience  are  of  a 
purely  passive  character,  and  result  chiefly  from  the  sense 
of  necessity.  But  this  sense  may  be  developed  by  the 
mother's  influence.  The  child  must  wait  to  be  fed,  to  be 
taken  to  her  arms.  It  is  not  till  much  later  that  he  is 
capable  of  active  obedience,  and  even  then  it  is  some  time 
before  he  feels  that  it  is  good  to  obey  his  mother. 

"  Nature  cares  nothing  for  the  child's  anger ;  he  may 
strike  wood  or  stone  as  he  pleases,  but  Nature  will  pay  no 
heed,  and  he  will  soon  cease  to  strike.  Similarly,  the 
mother  must  pay  no  heed  to  his  unreasonable  desires ; 
though  he  may  storm  and  cry,  she  must  remain  unmoved, 


BOOKS  AND  METHOD  AT  BURGDORF.        239 

and  presently  his  crying  will  stop.  He  thus  learns  to  sub- 
ordinate his  will  to  hers,  and  the  first  seeds  of  patience  and 
obedience  are  sown. 

"  Obedience,  gratitude,  trust,  and  love  combined,  are  the 
beginnings  of  conscience  ;  that  is,  of  a  first  vague  fee.ling  in 
the  child's  mind  that  it  is  not  well  for  him  to  be  angry 
with  his, mother,  who  loves  him;  that  his  mother  is  not  iu 
the  world  solely  for  him ;  that  everything  is  not  in  the 
world  for  him;  that  even  he  is  not  in  the  world  for  himself 
alone.  A  first  ray  of  duty  and  justice  has  reached  his 
heart. 

"  Such  are  the  first  elements  of  moral  development 
awakened  by  a  mother's  relations  with  her  infant.  They 
are  also  the  elements  of  religious  development,  and  it  is  by 
faith  in  its  mother  that  the  child  rises  to  faith  in  God.  .  .  . 

"  The  moment  will  soon  come  when  these  first  powerful 
springs  of  faith  and  action  will  disappear.  The  child's  own 
strength  already  allows  him  to  leave  his  mother's  hand,  a 
feeling  of  independence  grows  from  day  to  day,  and  slowly 
the  thought  rises  in  his  inmost  heart,  '  I  no  longer  need  my 
mother.'  But  she  reads  this  thought  in  his  eyes,  presses 
her  dear  one  still  more  closely  to  her  breast,  and  says,  in  a 
tone  which  he  has  never  heard  before :  '  My  dear  child,  there 
is  a  God  whom  you  need  when  you  no  longer  need  me,  who 
will  take  you  in  His  arms  when  I  can  no  longer  protect  you, 
who  will  prepare  joy  and  happiness  for  you  when  I  can  give 
you  neither  any  more.'  Then  in  the  child's  heart  rises  an 
inexpressible  feeling  of  comfort,  a  readiness  to  believe  which 
lifts  him  out  of  himself.  He  no  sooner  hears  God's  name 
from  his  mother's  lips  than  he  glows  with  gladness.  The 
sentiments  of  love,  gratitude  and  trust,  first  felt  on  his 
mother's  bosom,  are  felt  now  still  more  deeply  for  God, 
whom  he  loves  and  trusts  as  a  father  or  mother.  His 
faculty  of  obeying  grows  too  ;  the  child  now  feels  God's 
eye  upon  him  as  he  formerly  felt  his  mother's,  and  does 
good  in  God's  sight  as  he  used  to  do  it  in  hers. 

"This  first  attempt  of  a  loving,  simple-minded  mother  to 
subordinate  the  child's  growing  feeling  of  independence 
to  faith  in  God,  by  connecting  faith  with  certain  moral  ten- 
dencies that  are  already  more  or  less  developed,  furnishes 
education  with  the  fundamental  principles  from  which  it 
must  start,  if  it  is  to  succeed  in  ennobling  men. 


240          PESTALOZZI :  HIS  LIFE  AND    WORK. 

"The  first  germs,  then,  of  love,  gratitude,  faith,  and 
obedience  grow  out  of  certain  instinctive  relations  between 
the  mother  and  child,  but  the  after-development  of  these 
germs  requires  most  careful  art.  And  even  your  most  careful 
art,  0  educator,  will  remain  barren  if  you  lose  sight  for  a 
moment  of  their  starting-point,  for  you  will  then  be  break- 
ing the  thread  which  unites  the  growing  sentiments  to  their 
first  germs.  This  is  a  very  great  danger,  and  must  be 
guarded  against  at  the  outset.  The  child  called  for  his 
mother's  help,  loved  her,  thanked  her,  trusted  her,  obeyed  her. 
He  called  for  God's  help,  loved  Him,  thanked  Him,  trusted 
Him,  and  obeyed  Him.  But  the  first  sources  of  these  senti- 
ments have  now  ceased  to  exist ;  he  needs  his  mother  no  more, 
and  the  new  world  which  surrounds  him  is  crying  with  all 
its  sensuous  charm,  '  Now,  you  are  mine  ! ' 

"  The  child  hears  this  voice.  The  instincts  of  his  cradle 
have  disappeared  ;  those  of  his  growing  powers  have  replaced 
them.  The  moral  sentiments  which  were  the  product  of  his 
first  impressions  will  soon  disappear  too,  if  they  are  not 
now  indissolubly  bound  up  with  the  supreme  aspirations  of 
our  nature,  with  the  duties  of  life,  and  the  will  of  the 
Creator.  The  world  is  now  beginning  to  loosen  the  child 
from  the  mother's  heart,  and  if  at  this  time  no  one  is  found 
to  reconcile  the  noblest  sentiments  of  his  nature  with  this 
new  and  seductive  world,  it  is  all  over  with  him.  The 
child,  I  say,  is  snatched  from  the  loving  heart ;  the  world  is 
now  his  mother,  its  sensual  pleasures  and  proud  spirit  of 
dominion  are  now  his  god. 

"  Here,  for  the  first  time,  you  can  no  longer  trust  Nature ; 
you  must,  on  the  other  hand,  do  your  utmost  to  preserve 
your  child  from  his  own  blind  strength,  and  give  him  such 
rules,  principles  and  powers  as  the  experience  of  centuries 
has  shown  us  to  be  good.  The  world  which  is  now  before 
his  eyes,  is  no  longer  as  God  first  created  it ;  not  only  have 
its  pleasures  lost  their  innocence,  but  human  nature  has  lost 
its  nobility,  and  everywhere  is  war,  revolt,  usurpation, 
violence,  selfishness,  lying  and  deceit."  .  .  . 

We  have  no  space  for  further  quotations  from  this  im- 
portant work.  What  we  have  already  quoted  furnishes  a 
good  example  of  Pestalozzi's  tendency  to  digress.  He  took 
up  his  pen  to  set  forth  the  views  which  the  Burgdorf  insti- 


BOOKS  AND  METHOD  AT  BURGDORF.        241 

tute  was  intended  to  realize ;  but,  as  the  work  proceeded, 
fresh  ideas  crowded  so  thick  and  fast  upon  him,  that  at  last, 
carried  away  by  his  feeling  and  imagination,  he  launched 
out  into  entirely  new  regions  of  thought.  This  explains  how 
it  is  that  the  book  contains  so  much  more  than  its  title 
seemed  to  promise.  Morf,  who  has  analyzed  the  work  with 
much  care  and  penetration,  thus  resumes  its  pedagogical 
principles : 

1.  "  Sense-impression  is  the  foundation  of  instruction. 

2.  "  Language  must  be  connected  with  sense-impression. 
3    "  The  time  for  learning  is  not  the  time  for  judgment 

and  criticism. 

4.  "  In   each    branch,   instruction  must  begin   with   the 
simplest  elements,  and  proceed  gradually  by  following  the 
child's  development ;  that  is,  by  a  series  of  steps  which  are 
pyschologically  connected. 

5.  "  A  pause  must  be  made  at  each  stage  of  the  instruc- 
tion sufficiently  long  for  the  child  to  get  the  new  matter 
thoroughly  into  his  grasp  and  under  his  control. 

6.  "  Teaching  must  follow  the  path  of  development,  and 
not  that  of  dogmatic  exposition. 

7.  "  The  individuality  of  the  pupil  must  be  sacred  for  the 
teacher. 

8.  "  The  chief  aim   of  elementary   instruction  is  not  to 
furnish  the  child  with  knowledge  and  talents,  but  to  develop 
and  increase  the  powers  of  his  mind. 

9.  "  To   knowledge   must   be  joined  power ;    to  what   is 
known,  the  ability  to  turn  it  to  account. 

10.  "The  relations  between  master  and  pupil,  especially 
so  far  as  discipline  is  concerned,  must  be  established  and 
regulated  by  love. 

11.  "  Instruction  must  be  subordinated  to  the  higher  end 
of  education." 

"We  shall  not  here  undertake  an  examination  of  the  "  method," 
as  it  is  still  in  course  of  formation.  Pestalozzi's  own  ex- 
periences at  Burgdorf  tended  to  modify  it  somewhat,  and, 
later  on,  the  labours  of  his  assistants  had  a  considerable 
effect  in  developing  and  extending  it.  Moreover,  Pestalozzi 
•worked  at  it  with  almost  unimpaired  intellectual  vigour  till 
quite  the  end  of  his  life,  as  we  see  in  the  Song  of  the  Swan, 


242          PESTALOZZI:  HIS  LIFE  AND    WORK. 

written  when  lie  was  eighty  years  of  age.  Not  till  we  have 
related  his  whole  life,  therefore,  can  we  examine  the  educa- 
tional method  bequeathed  to  us  by  his  genius  and  marvellous 
mental  activity. 

But  what  we  are  in  a  position  to  state  at  once  is,  that  in 
this  book,  in  which  Pestalozzi  endeavoured  to  set  forth  his 
educational  doctrine  at  a  time  when  it  could  not  possibly 
have  been  affected  by  any  foreign  influence,  he  constantly 
returns  to  the  idea,  so  often  expressed  already  in  his  writings, 
that  the  intellectual  and  moral  development  of  the  child  is 
governed  by  the  same  organic  laws  as  his  physical  develop- 
ment or  that  of  the  plant  or  animal ;  in  other  words,  that 
there  is  a  human  organism  which  comprises  a  material,  an 
intellectual,  and  a  moral  organism.  It  is  our  belief  that  if 
Pestalozzi  had  investigated  and  formulated  the  laws  of 
organism  so  as  to  be  able  to  apply  them  to  the  object  of  his 
labours,  he  would  have  succeeded  in  giving  his  method  more 
clearness  and  precision.1 

We  must  now  give  some  account  of  the  elementary  books 
to  which  we  have  referred  in  a  previous  chapter,  and  which 
were  published  during  the  existence  of  the  Burgdorf  insti- 
tute. 

The  first,  which  appeared  in  1801,  and  received  some 
pecuniary  support  from  the  Helvetian  Government,  was  the 
Guide  for  Teaching  Spelling  and  Reading.  It  was  originally 
supplemented  by  large  letters,  which  were  intended  to  be 
gummed  on  cardboard.  The  use  of  these  movable  letters 
seems  to  have  constituted  Pestaloz/i's  first  real  public 
success,  so  that  it  is  to  him  we  owe  this  practical  method, 
still  employed  in  so  many  families. 

His  Book  for  Mothers  was  printed  in  1803 ;  it  came  far 
short  of  what  he  had  intended  to  make  it,  and  not  only 
failed  to  produce  the  good  effect  he  had  expected,  but  was 
ignored  by  the  very  people  for  whom  it  was  written. 

This  failure  seems  to  us  to  depend  upon  an  error  that  had 
crept  into  Pestalozzi's  thought,  an  error  which  we  must  now 
endeavour  to  explain,  since  its  consequences  were  lasting 
and  fatal.  This  error  not  only  rendered  many  of  the  efforts 

1  We  have  given  an  account  of  the  laws  of  organism  and  their  appli- 
cation to  physical,  moral  and  intellectual  education  iu  our  first  work, 
Pliilosoyhy  and  Practice  of  Education.  Paris,  1860. 


BOOKS  AND  METHOD  AT  BURGDORF.        243 

of  Pestalozzi  and  his  helpers  quite  futile,  but  also  served 
to  spread  a  false  idea  of  his  method,  and  compromised  the 
success  and  utility  of  the  various  elementary  books  which 
were  afterwards  published  in  his  name. 

We  must  say  at  once  that  it  was  not  an  error  of  doctrine, 
but  simply  a  want  of  due  appreciation  of  the  difficulties 
which  the  mothers  of  his  time  were  bound  to  meet  with,  in 
attempting  to  apply  his  method  to  the  instruction  of  their 
children. 

It  was  assuredly  a  beautiful  and  noble  thought  to  ask 
mothers  themselves  to  begin  the  reform  of  education  by 
teaching  their  children  by  a  method  which  was  to  be  but  a 
continuation  of  the  natural  method  suggested  to  them  by 
the  first  inspirations  of  the  maternal  instinct.  But  to 
succeed,  it  would  have  been  necessary  for  them  to  forget  the 
methods  by  which  they  had  been  taught  themselves,  to  break 
away  from  those  they  saw  in  use  around  them,  and  to  be  as 
fervently  devoted  to  the  new  method  as  they  would  have 
been  if  they  had  been  brought  up  themselves  by  Pestalozzi, 
or  even  in  the  spirit  of  his  teaching. 

Pestalozzi  thought  he  could  avoid  this  difficulty  by  sim- 
plifying the  elements  of  instruction  and  multiplying  the 
successive  steps,  so  as  to  form  a  series  of  minute  gradations. 
His  idea  was  to  explain  the  course  to  be  followed  in  all  its 
details,  and  supply  mothers  word  for  word  with  all  they 
would  have  to  say  to  their  children.  But  such  a  work  was 
too  long  and  monotonous  for  a  mind  like  Pestalozzi's,  so 
easily  carried  away  by  new  ideas,  and  it  was  left,  in  a  great 
measure,  to  his  collaborators. 

According  to  the  original  plan  of  its  author,  the  Book  for 
Mothers  was  to  lead  the  child  not  only  to  a  precise  know- 
ledge of  the  various  objects  of  Nature  or  of  art  which  were 
presented  to  him,  but  also  to  an  understanding  of  the 
relations  both  of  numbers  and  forms. 

The  study  of  that  part  of  the  sensible  world  which  lay 
within  the  child's  comprehension  included  an  infinite  variety 
of  objects.  Some  order  was  necessary,  and  a  starting-point 
which  should  be  everywhere  the  same — a  first  object  of 
observation,  that  is,  which  every  mother  who  was  anxious 
to  use  these  exercises  would  invariably  have  before  her 
eyes. 

Pestalozzi  chose  the  body  of  the  child  itself.     He  had 


244  PESTALOZZI:  HIS  LIFE  AND    WORK. 

indeed  said  elsewhere :  "  All  I  am,  all  I  wish,  and  all  I  can 
do,  comes  from  myself."  After  the  child  were  to  come 
animals,  then  plants,  then  the  inorganic  world,  and  then, 
after  the  works  of.  God,  the  works  of  man. 

It  was  Krusi  who  wrote  the  Book  for  Mothers,  under 
Pestalozzi's  directions;  but  the  study  of  the  external  parts 
of  the  human  body,  their  names,  number,  relative  position; 
relations,  functions,  etc.,  filled  a  volume,  and  there  the  work 
stopped. 

Pestalozzi  had  written  the  preface,  in  which  he  announced 
a  series  of  ten  exercises,  seven  only  of  which  were  even- 
tually carried  out.  The  seventh,  which  was  drawn  up  by 
Pestalozzi  himself,  consists  of  a  collection  of  instructive 
remarks  on  the  functions  of  the  child's  various  organs,  and 
well  repays  perusal.  The  following  quotation  from  an  article 
entitled,  Seeing  with  the  Eyes,  will  give  a  sufficient  idea 
of  it: 

"  When  the  child  is  still  but  a  babe,  his  mother  takes  him 
to  the  open  window,  and  he  sees  the  sky  and  earth,  the 
garden  before  the  house,  trees,  houses,  men  and  animals ; 
he  sees  things  near  and  things  in  the  distance,  great  things 
and  small  things,  some  standing  alone,  some  in  groups ;  he 
also  sees  white  and  blue  and  red  and  black.  But  he  has 
no  idea  of  nearness  or  distance ;  he  knows  nothing  of  size, 
number,  and  colour. 

"  Some  weeks  later  his  mother  carries  him  in  her  arms 
into  the  garden,  where  he  finds  himself  close  to  the  same 
tree  that  he  had  seen  from  the  window.  Dogs,  cats,  cows 
and  sheep  pass  near  him  ;  he  sees  the  fowls  peck  the  grains 
his  mother  scatters ;  he  sees  the  water  flowing  from  the 
fountain.  His  mother  picks  flowers  of  different  colours  for 
him,  and  putting  them  into  his  hand,  teaches  him  to  smell 
them. 

"  As  the  months  go  by,  his  mother  takes  him  about  with' 
her  still  more  ;  he  at  last  comes  quite  near  to  the  houses, 
trees,  or  steeples,  that  hitherto  he  has  seen  only  from  afar. 
Almost  before  he  can  walk  he  is  prompted  by  the  twofold 
desire  for  pleasure  and  knowledge  to  crawl  over  the  paternal 
threshold,  and  go  and  breathe  the  fresh  air  and  feel  the 
pleasant  warmth  of  the  sun  in  some  sheltered  nook  behind 
the  houne.  He  tries  to  take  hold  of  everything  he  sees ;  he 


BOOKS  AND  METHOD  AT  BURGDORF.        245 

picks  up  stones,  and  breaks  the  bright,  scented  flowers  from 
their  stalks,  putting  both  stones  and  flowers  into  his  mouth. 
He  would  fain  stop  the  worm  on  its  way,  the  butterfly  as  it 
flies  past  him,  the  lambs  in  the  meadows.  Nature  is  unfold- 
ing before  his  eyes  and  he  is  eager  to  enjoy  everything ; 
each  day  he  learns  something  new,  each  day  gives  him  a 
clearer  conception  of  size,  distance,  and  number.  .  .  . 

"  And  now,  mothers,  what  have  you  to  do  all  this  time  ? 
Nothing  but  follow  the  course  that  Nature  and  Providence 
are  laying  down  for  you.  You  see  what  objects  God  presents 
to  your  child  as  soon  as  he  opens  his  eyes,  you  see  the  effect 
of  his  involuntary  and,  so  to  speak,  inevitable  perceptions,  you 
see  what  pleases  and  amuses  him.  Let  your  whole  conduct 
be  regulated  then  by  what  you  see ;  take  your  child  near 
the  object  which  strikes  him  and  attracts  him  the  most, 
show  him  his  favourite  objects  again  and  again,  search 
amongst  everything  within  your  reach — in  the  garden,  the 
house,  the  meadows  and  fields — for  those  objects  which,  by 
their  colour,  shape,  motion  or  brilliancy,  have  most  in  com- 
mon with  what  he  likes  best.  Surround  his  cradle  with 
them  and  place  them  on  the  table  where  he  takes  his  food. 
Give  him  full  time  to  examine  their  properties  at  his  ease, 
and  let  him  observe  that  by  putting  new  flowers  into  the 
vase  where  others  have  faded,  by  calling  back  the  dog,  or 
by  picking  up  the  fallen  toy,  you  are  often  able  to  reproduce 
them  when  they  disappear.  This  will  be  doing  something 
for  his  heart  and  judgment ;  but  you  must  never  forget,  0 
young  mothers,  that  the  one  essential  thing  is  that  your 
child  shall  love  you  better  than  everything  else,  that  his 
happiest  smiles,  his  most  eager  attentions  shall  be  for  you 
alone,  and  that  you,  on  your  side,  shall  love  nothing  better 
than  him." 

Already,  in  the  preface,  Pestalozzi  had  appealed  to  the 
feelings  of  mothers.  He  there  exhorts  them  and  encourages 
them,  and  points  out  that  they  are  not  to  follow  these  exer- 
cises from  one  end  to  the  other  without  any  variation,  but 
that  they  must  lose  no  opportunity  of  fixing  the  attention  of 
their  child  on  any  object  that  may  attract  him — that,  in 
short.  4he  guide  which  he  is  giving  them  is  but  an  example 
of  how  the  child  is  to  be  taught  to  see  properly  and  to 
express  clearly  what  he  has  seen. 


246  PESTALOZZI:  HIS  LIFE  AND    WORK. 

He  then  adds: 

"  I  know  too  well  Low  it  will  be  ;  this  poor  husk,  which 
is  but  the  mere  outward  form  of  my  method,  will  appear  to 
be  its  real  substance  to  a  great  number  of  men,  who  will 
endeavour  to  introduce  this  form  into  the  narrow  circle  of 
their  own  ideas,  and  will  judge  of  the  value  of  the  method 
according  to  the  effects  it  produces  in  this  strange  associa- 
tion. I  cannot  prevent  the  forms  of  my  method  from  having 
the  same  fate  as  all  other  forms,  which  inevitably  perish  in 
the  hands  of  men  who  are  neither  desirous  nor  capable  of 
grasping  their  spirit." 

In  spite  of  all  these  warnings,  Pestalozzi's  predictions 
were  fulfilled.  The  Book  for  Mothers  did  not  succeed ; 
some  of  his  critics  even  did  not  understand  what  his  inten- 
tion had  been  in  publishing  it,  and  looked  on  it  merely  as  an 
absurd  experiment.  Dussault,  a  celebrated  and  witty  French 
journalist,  gave  the  following  humorous  account  of  it : 

u  Pestalozzi  takes  a  world  of  trouble  to  teach  a  child  that 
his  nose  is  in  the  middle  of  his  face." 

These  words  are  actually  to  be  found  in  the  book,  in  the 
chapter  on  the  relative  positions  of  the  parts  of  the  body, 
which  was  drawn  up  by  Krusi.  Those,  however,  who 
already  knew  something  of  Pestalozzi  and  his  doctrine,  took 
a  considerable  interest  in  the  book  in  spite  of  its  defects. 
A  French  translation  of  it  was  published  at  Geneva,  in  1821, 
but  the  translator  withheld  his  name. 

After  the  Book  for  Mothers  came  the  books  intended  for 
sense-impressing  exercises  on  number  and  form,  that  is,  for 
the  first  instruction  in  arithmetic  and  geometry.  They  were 
begun  by  Krusi  and  Buss,  but  were  afterwards  completed 
by  Schmidt. 

These  books  were  just  as  overburdened  with  details,  just 
as  prolix  and  tedious  as  the  Book  for  Mothers,  nor  were 
they  any  more  successful  or  any  more  useful,  although  the 
path  to  be  followed  is  minutely  mapped  out. 

These  elementary  books,  as  we  have  said,  gave  a  false 
impression  of  Pestalozzi's  method.  People  did  not  sufficiently 
understand  that  these  series  of  statements  were  to  result 


BOOKS  AND  METHOD  AT  BURG  DO  RF.         247 

from  the  child's  own  observation  and  experience ;  slaves  to 
tradition,  they  only  saw  in  them  a  lesson  to  be  learned  by 
heart  and  repeated  mechanically.  And  thus,  not  without 
some  show  of  reason,  Pestalozzi's  method  has  been  blamed 
for  a  defect  which  is  precisely  the  defect  it  was  intended  to 
c:ire. 

Pestalozzi's  method  is  spirit  and  life,  and  before  we  can 
apply  it  we  must  be  inspired  by  this  spirit  and  this  life  ; 
his  work  cannot  be  carried  on  by  a  mere  stereotyped  imita- 
tion of  his  procedure.  And  yet,  since  Pestalozzi's  time, 
some  of  his  less  important  principles  have  spread  and  taken 
root,  and  already,  in  nearly  every  country,  effected  a  certain 
improvement  in  educational  methods.  This  progress  is  both 
slight  and  incomplete,  and  very  far  indeed  from  what  we 
should  have  been  justified  in  expecting.  But  Pestalozzi's 
method  will  not  produce  its  full  results  until  his  philosophy 
has  been  still  further  popularized,  and  all  educationalists  are 
thoroughly  imbued  with  its  spirit. 

We  have  still  to  speak  of  a  work  that  Pestalozzi  wrote  at 
this  time  (that  is,  between  1802  and  1805),  but  which  he 
never  published.  The  manuscript,  written  throughout  in 
Pestalozzi's  hand,  is  in  the  possession  of  Mr.  Morf,  of  Win- 
terthur,  so  that  its  authenticity  is  incontestable.  It  is  called 
The  Natural  Schoolmaster,  and  was  printed  for  the  first  time 
in  1872,  in  Seyffarth's  collection.  Its  history  is  as  follows  : 

The  Book  for  Mothers,  as  it  was  published  in  1803,  was 
but  a  first  instalment,  and  that  a  very  unsatisfactory  one,  of 
a  much  more  important  work  projected  by  its  author.  Pesta- 
lozzi's view  was  that,  after  having  accustomed  the  child  to 
talk  about  his  physical  impressions,  it  would  be  well  to  go 
on  and  accustom  him  to  talk  about  his  moral  impressions. 
With  this  object,  he  took  as  his  text  the  language  itself,  or 
rather,  those  words  in  the  language  which  express  such 
moral  sentiments  as  the  child  is  capable  of  understanding 
and  from  the  explanation  of  which  he  is  likely  to  profit.  It 
was  to  this  new  work,  which  seems  to  have  been  undertaken 
at  the  same  time  as  the  first,  that  Pestalozzi  gave  the  title, 
The.  Natural  Schoolmaster.  The  book,  both  in  plan  and  form, 
was  entirely  different  from  the  Book  for  Mothers. 

Whether  the  author  was  dissatisfied  with  his  work,  or 
whether  time  failed  him  to  correct  and  complete  it,  we  do 
not  know :  but  this,  at  least,  is  certain,  that  he  abandoned 


248          PESTALOZZI:  HIS  LIFE   AND    WORK. 

his  idea,  and  gave  his  manuscript  to  Krusi,  with  permission 
to  make  whatever  use  of  it  he  thought  best. 

In  putting  this  book  on  one  side,  Festal ozzi  was  far  from 
giving  up  his  intention  of  writing  a  work  on  the  elementary 
teaching  of  language  ;  a  subject,  indeed,  at  which  he  con- 
tinued to  work  steadily  till  the  end  of  his  life,  and  on  which 
he  left  a  great  quantity  of  manuscripts,  which,  however, 
with  many  others,  were  unfortunately  lost  some  few  years 
after  his  death.  Schmidt,  who  was  then  in  Paris,  having 
asked  to  see  them,  Gottlieb  sent  them  off  to  him.  But  they 
never  reached  their  destination.  Inquiries  were  made,  and 
they  were  traced  to  Mulhouse,  but,  in  spite  of  every  effort, 
it  was  impossible  to  discover  what  became  of  them  after- 
wards. 

In  1829,  Krusi,  at  that  time  the  director  of  the  Cantonal 
School  at  Trogen,  decided  to  utilize  for  the  public  benefit 
the  documents  that  had  been  entrusted  to  him.  After 
studying  the  manuscript,  therefore,  and  reducing  it  to  order, 
he  published  a  selection  of  passages  in  a  pamphlet  of  some 
hundred  and  twenty  pages,  entitled  :  Paternal  Instnictions 
on  the  Moral  Signification  of  Words  •  a  Legacy  from  Father 
Pestalozzi  to  his  Pupils. 

In  the  preface,  Krusi  gives  the  history  of  the  manuscript, 
and  quotes  the  following  passage  from  Pestalozzi's  letters  to 
Gessner : 

*'  I  hope  to  complete  my  reading-lessons  by  a  legacy  to 
my  pupils,  in  which,  after  my  death,  they  will  find,  connected 
with  the  principal  verbs  in  the  language,  and  stated  in 
such  a  way  as  to  strike  them  as  they  struck  me,  a  certain 
number  of  moral  instructions,  all  drawn  from  my  own  ex- 
perience." 

The  paternal  instructions  are  indeed  based  on  the  mean- 
ings of  a  series  of  words,  nearly  all  of  which  are  verbs. 

The  body  of  .the  work  is  preceded  by  a  number  of 
detached  thoughts  and  notes,  jotted  down  without  any 
attempt  at  order,  like  so  much  material  for  a  building  that 
has  never  been  completed.  It  is  amongst  these  notes  that 
we  come  across  the  title  of  the  work:  The  Natural  School- 
master •  or,  Practical  Instructions  based  on  the  Simplest 
Principles  of  Education  for  Teaching  Children  all  they 


BOOKS  AND  METHOD   AT  BURGDORF.        249 

need  know  up  to  the  age  of  six  years.     Then  follows  the 
dedication : 

"  To  the  People  of  Helvetia ! 

"  I  have  seen  thy  degradation,  thy  terrible  degradation, 
and  I  have  had  pity  on  thee,  and  long  to  help  thee.  I  have 
neither  talent  nor  knowledge,  and  I  am  of  no  account  in  the 
world,  but  I  know  thy  needs.  I  give  thee,  then,  myself  and 
all  that  I  have  been  able  to  accomplish  for  thee  by  the  pain- 
ful labours  of  my  life. 

"Read  what  I  say  without  prejudice,  and  if  any  one  should 
offer  anything  better,  throw  me  aside,  and  let  me  sink  back 
into  the  obscurity  in  which  I  have  passed  my  life.  But  if 
no  one  can  tell  thee  what  I  tell  thee,  if  no  one  can  help  thee 
as  I  can,  then  give  a  tear  to  my  memory  and  to  the  life  I 
have  lost  for  thy  sake." 

Amongst  the  preliminary  notes  we  find  some  striking 
ideas  as  to  the  moral  importance  of  good  language-teaching 
which  pat  us  in  mind  of  the  work  of  Father  Girard  twenty 
years  later  ;  there  are  also  plans  for  the  study  of  language, 
and  criticisms  of  the  methods  then  in  use.  After  speaking 
of  the  mischief  done  by  the  bad  methods  of  so  many  school- 
masters, the  author  exclaims,  "  Jesus  Christ,  the  only 
Master!"  That,  then,  is  where "Pestalozzi  looked  for  his 
model. 

As  we  have  said,  the  body  of  the  work  is  a  collection  of 
instructions  founded  on  the  meanings  of  words.  The  words 
are  arranged  alphabetically,  each  word  being  accompanied 
by  its  derivatives,  and  each  being  taken  successively  in  its 
different  acceptations.  To  be  thoroughly  understood,  the 
book  must,  of  course,  be  read  in  German,  but  we  will  endea- 
vour to  give  our  readers  some  idea  of  it  by  translating  the 
first  paragraph : 

"I.  Achten,  achtend,  geachtet,  erachten,  beobachten,  hoch- 
a  eh  ten,  verachten,  sich  selbstachten ;  die  Achtung,  die 
Selbstachtuug. 

"  Children,  the  first  word  I  am  going  to  explain  to  you  13 
Sclbstachtung  (attention  to  self,  respect  for  self). 

"It  is  this  that  makes  you  blush  when  you  have  done 
wiong;  that  makes  you  love  virtue,  pray  to  God,  believe  in 
18 


250          PESTALOZZI:  HIS  LIFE  AND    WORK. 

eternal  life,  and  overcome  sin.  It  is  this  that  makes  you 
honour  age  and  wisdom,  and  prevents  your  turning  aside 
from  poverty  and  distress  ;  it  is  this  that  enables  you  to 
repel  error  and  falsehood,  and  teaches  you  to  love  truth. 
Children,  it  is  this  that  makes  the  coward  a  hero,  the  idler 
a  man  of  action ;  that  makes  us  honour  the  stranger,  and 
come  to  the  rescue  of  the  outcast  and  the  fallen." 

The  manuscript  in  the  hands  of  Mr.  Morf  is  not  all  that 
Pestalozzi  entrusted  to  Krusi ;  there  were  also  a  number  of 
separate  sheets,  made  use  of  by  Krusi  for  his  publication, 
which  have  since  been  lost.  But  everything  contained  in 
The  Natural  Schoolmaster  and  the  Paternal  Instructions 
has  been  published  by  Seyffarth  in  the  sixteenth  volume 
of  his  collection  of  Pestalozzi's  works,  a  volume  which  any 
one  who  was  thinking  of  preparing  a  marmal  of  language- 
exercises  for  young  children  would  do 'well  to  read. 


CHAPTER 

FIRST  YEARS  AT  YVERDUN, 

Helpers.  Vulliemin's  reminiscences.  Prussia  adopts  the  Pesta- 
lozzian  Method.  Great  reputation  of  the  Institute.  Testi- 
mony of  Hitter,  Raumer,  etc.  School  for  girls.  School  for 
deaf-mutes.  L>fe  in  the  institute.  A  printing-press  in  the 
Castle.  "  Weekly  Journal  of  Education."  Other  publica- 
tions. Games,  manual  labour,  festivities. 

ONCE  installed  in  the  old  Castle  of  Yverdun,1  the  institute 
grew  rapidly ;  the  pupils  were  soon  much  more  numerous 
than  they  had  been  at  Burgdorf,  and  the  number  of  masters 
was  considerably  increased.  Many  of  the  latter  had  been 
pupils  at  Burgdorf,  and  now,  as  under-masters  entrusted 
with  the  teaching  of  the  most  elementary  subjects,  they 
faithfully  applied  the  method  by  which  they  had  themselves 
been  formed.  The  others  were  men  of  various  attainments 
and  capacity,  who  had  eagerly  accepted  work  under  Pesta- 
lozzi. 

Amongst  the  new  helpers  we  must  mention  : 
John  Niederer,  of  Outer  Appenzell,  Doctor  of  Philo- 
sophy, who  when  the  Burgdorf  institute  was  opened  was 
the  pastor  of  Sennwald,  in  the  Rheinthal.  In  the  letters 
which  he  wrote  at  the  time  to  his  intimate  friend  Tobler, 
and  which  have  since  been  published  by  his  widow,  he 
expresses  sincere  admiration  for  Pestalozzi,  and  a  groat 
desire  to  join  him.  This  desire,  however,  was  not  satisfied 
till  some  years  later,  for  he  would  not  leave  his  parish  till 
he  was  satisfied  that  it  would  not  suffer  from  his  absence. 
Niederer  has  been  called  the  philosopher  of  the  "  method," 

1  Once  the  residence  of  the  Bailiffs  of  Canton  Berne,  it  had  become 
the  property  of  the  Vaudese  Government,  and  had  been  sold  in  1804  to 
the  town  of  Yverduu,  on  condition  that  Pestalozzi,  during  his  life,  should 
have  the  gratuitous  use  of  it  for  his  educational  institution. 


252  PESTALOZZI:  HIS  LIFE  AND    WORK. 

because  he  put  Pestalozzi's  ideas  into  a  more  philosophical 
form.  At  Yverdun  he  revised  everything  that  the  master 
wrote  for  publication,  correcting  the  chief  defects,  and,  it 
must  be  added,  somewhat  spoiling  the  originality  of  both 
matter  and  form.  Indeed,  if  Pestalozzi's  thought  is  to  be 
thoroughly  understood,  it  must  be  examined  in  those  of  his 
writings  which  were  not  touched  by  anybody  but  himself. 

De  Murault,1  of  Zurich,  a  well-informed  man,  of  large 
views  and  good  administrative  ability  ;  simple  and  kindly 
with  children.  He  had  lived  in  Paris,  and  spoke  French 
fairly  well ;  and  as  all  the  singing  in  the  institute  was  in 
German,  he  won  the  hearts  of  all  the  French-speaking  boys 
by  taking  us  for  walks,  and  teaching  us  songs  in  our  mother- 
tongue.5*  He  afterwards  became  the  head  of  an  important 
educational  establishment  in  St.  Petersburg. 

Mieg,  a  capable  man  ;  kind,  but  very  firm.  After  Murault's 
departure,  Pestalozzi  entrusted  him  for  some  time  with  the 
general  management  of  the  discipline  of  the  institute. 

Von  Tiirck,  of  a  noble  family  in  the  north  of  Germany.  He 
gave  up  a  good  position  in  the  Oldenburg  magistracy  to  come 
and  study  Pestalozzi's  work,  of  which  he  afterwards  pub- 
lished an  account,  with  the  title :  Letters  from.  Munclien- 
buchsee  on  Pestalozzi  and  his  Elementary  Method  of  Educa- 
tion. This  man,  distinguished  alike  for  his  talents,  his  high 
aims,  and  his  extraordinary  strength  of  will,  after  having 
conducted  a  school  in  Yverdun  in  connection  with  Pesta- 
lozzi's institute,  was  appointed  a  Councillor  of  State  in 
Potsdam,  where  he  zealously  worked  for  thirty  years  at  the 
application  and  propagation  of  the  masters  doctrine. 

Barraud,  soon  called  away  by  Maine  de  Biran  to  Ber- 
gerac,  in  Dordogne,  where  he  founded  an  educational  insti- 
tute based  on  Pestalozzi's  principles. 

Amongst  the  poor  children  who  had  been  received  at 
Burgdorf,  and  who  afterwards  became  masters  at  Yverdun, 
the  three  most  distinguished  were  : 

TJamsauer.  of  whom  mention  has  already  been  made,  and 
whom  we  shall  have  occasion  to  quote  again. 

1  He  had  been  teaching  in  a  family  in  Paris  at  the  time  of  the  Con- 
sulta,  and  having  become  acquainted  with  Pestalozzi,  had  expressed  a 
desire  to  work  with  him. 

8  The  author  was  an  old  Yvordun  pnpil.     [Tr.] 


FIRST   YEARS  AT   Y VERDUN.  253 

Joseph  Schmidt,  a  shepherd-boy  from  the  Tyrol,  who  had 
had  no  early  education  whatever.  Burgdorf  had  a  greater 
influence  on  his  intellect  than  on  his  heart.  He  soon  showed 
a  remarkable  talent  for  mathematics,  which  he  taught  at 
Yverdun  with  great  skill  and  astonishing  success.  With  a 
glance  like  an  eagle  and  a  will  of  iron,  he  was  crafty, 
domineering,  and  utterly  devoid  of  sensibility.  He  gradu- 
ally obtained  complete  ascendancy  over  Pestalozzi's  mind, 
and  was  finally  the  cause  of  the  departure  of  the  other 
masters,  and  of  the  ruin  of  the  institute.  It  was  he  who 
drew  up  the  Elementai-y  Lessons  in  Number  and  Form,  which 
are  printed  in  volumes  xiv.  and  xv.  of  the  very  incomplete 
edition  of  Pestalozzi's  works  published  by  Gotta  from  1820 
to  1826. 

Steiner,  a  neglected  child,  who  received  all  his  education 
from  Pestalozzi  at  Burgdorf.  He  was  an  under-master  at 
Yverdun.  and  was  one  of  the  pupils  who  did  the  greatest 
credit  to  the  "  method.''  Much  later  he  became  a  professor 
of  mathematics  in  Berlin,  and  published  works  which  have 
had  a  very  considerable  effect  in  popularizing  and  improv- 
ing the  study  of  that  science. 

Such  were  now  Pestalozzi's  chief  helpers.  There  were 
many  others  afterwards,  but  it  must  be  remembered  that  we 
are  speaking  of  a  time  when  the  Yverdun  institute  was  still 
in  its  infancy. 

To  give  our  readers  a  clear  idea  of  the  life  of  the  institute 
in  these  early  days,  we  cannot  do  better  than  quote  the 
interesting  writer  who  has  lately  published,  for  his  family 
and  friends,  as  he  says,  the  memories  of  his  childhood.  We 
refer  to  Professor  Vulliemin,  the  eminent  historian  and  con- 
tiuuator  of  Jean  de  Muller.  He  entered  Pestalozzi's  institute 
in  1805,  at  the  age  of  eight,  and  remained  there  two  years. 
His  account  of  the  place  is  as  follows : 

"  Imagine,  my  children,  a  very  ugly  man,  with  rough, 
bristling  hair,  his  face  scarred  with  small-pox  and  covered 
with  freckles,  a  pointed,  untidy  beard,  no  neck-tie,  ill-fitting 
trousers,  stockings  down,  and  enormous  shoes ;  add  to  this 
a  breathless,  sliuffling  gait,  eyes  either  large  and  flashing, 
or  half-closed  as  though  turned  within,  features  expressing 
either  a  profound  sadness  or  the  most  peaceful  happiness, 
speech  now  slow  and  musical,  now  thundering  and  hurried. 


254          PESTALOZZI:  HIS  LIFE  AND    WORK 

and  you  will  have  some  idea  of  the  man  we  called  '  Father 
Pestalozzi.' 

"  Such  as  I  have  described  him  to  you,  we  loved  him ; 
yes,  we  all  loved  him,  for  he  loved  us  all ;  we  loved  him  so 
much  that  when  we  lost  sight  of  him  for  a  time  we  felt  sad 
and  lonely,  and  when  he  came  back  to  us  again  we  could 
not  tuin  our  eyes  away  from  him. 

"  We  knew  that  at  the  time  when  the  wars  of  the  Swiss 
Revolution  had  so  largely  increased  the  number  of  poor  and 
orphan  children,  he  had  taken  a  great  number  of  them  into 
his  house  and  cared  for  them  as  a  father,  and  we  felt  that 
he  was  the  true  friend  of  children,  and  of  all  who  were  in 
trouble  or  misfortune. 

"  My  fellow-citizens  of  Yverdun,  my  native  town,  had 
generously  placed  at  his  disposal  the  old  Castle.  It  was 
built  in  the  shape  of  a  huge  square,  and  its  great  rooms  and 
courts  were  admirably  adapted  for  the  games  as  well  as  the 
studies  of  a  large  school.  Within  its  walls  were  assembled 
from  a  hundred  and  fifty  to  two  hundred  children  of  all 
nations,  who  divided  their  time  between  lessons  and  happy 
play.  It  often  happened  that  a  game  of  prisoner's  base,  begun 
in  the  Castle  court,  would  be  finished  on  the  grass  near  the 
lake.  In  winter  we  used  to  make  a  mighty  snow-fortress, 
which  was  attacked  and  defended  with  equal  heroism.  Sick- 
ness was  hardly  known  among  us. 

"  Early  every  morning  we  went  in  turns  and  had  a  shower 
of  cold  water  thrown  over  us.  We  were  generally  bare- 
headed, but  once,  when  a  bitterly  cold  wind  was  blowing, 
my  father  took  pity  upon  me,  and  gave  me  a  hat.  My  com- 
panions had  no  sooner  perceived  it  than  a  hue  and  cry  was 
raised  :  '  A  hat,  a  hat ! '  It  was  soon  knocked  off.  my  head 
and  a  hundred  hands  sent  it  flying  about  the  playground  and 
corridors,  till  at  last  it  went  spinning  through  a  window, 
and  fell  into  the  river  that  flows  under  the  walls  of  the 
Castle.  It  was  carried  away  to  the  lake  and  I  never  saw 
it  again. 

"  Our  masters  were  for  the  most  part  young  men,  and 
nearly  all  children  of  the  revolutionary  period,  who  had 
grown  up  round  Pestalozzi,  their  father  and  ours.  There 
were,  indeed,  a  few  educated  men  and  scholars  who  had 
come  to  share  his  task  ;  but,  taken  altogether,  there  was  not 
much  learning  I  myself  hrve  heard  Pestalozzi  boast,  when 


FJRST    YEARS  AT   Y VERDUN.  255 


an  old  man,  of  not  having  read  anything  for  forty  years.  Nor 
did  onr  masters,  his  first  pupils,  read  much  more  than 
Pestalozzi  himself.  Their  teaching  was  addressed  to  the 
understanding  rather  than  the  memory,  and  had  for  its  aim 
the  harmonious  cultivation  of  the  germs  implanted  in  us 
by  Providence.  '  Make  it  your  aim  to  develop  the  child,' 
Pestalozzi  was  never  tired  of  repeating,  '  and  do  not  merely 
train  him  as  you  would  train  a  dog,  and  as  so  many  children 
in  our  schools  often  are  trained.' 

"  Our  studies  wei-e  almost  entirely  based  on  number,  form, 
and  language.  Language  was  taught  us  by  the  help  of 
sense-impression ;  we  were  taught  to  see  correctly,  and  in 
that  way  to  form  for  ourselves  a  just  idea  of  the  relations  of 
things.  What  we  had  thoroughly  understood  we  had  no 
trouble  to  express  clearly. 

"  The  first  elements  of  geography  were  taught  us  from  the 
land  itself.  We  were  first  taken  to  a  narrow  valley  not  far 
from  Yverdun,  where  the  river  Buron  runs.  After  taking 
a  general  view  of  the  valley,  we  were  made  to  examine  the 
details,  until  we  had  obtained  an  exact  and  complete  idea 
of  it.  We  were  then  told  to  take  some  of  the  clay  which 
lay  in  beds  on  one  side  of  the  valley,  and  fill  the  baskets 
which  we  had  brought  for  the  purpose.  On  our  return  to 
the  Castle,  we  took  our  places  at  the  long  tables,  and  repro- 
duced in  relief  the  valley  we  had  just  studied,  each  one 
doing  the  part  which  had  been  allotted  to  him.  In  the 
course  of  the  next  few  days  more  walks  and  more  explora- 
tions, each  day  on  higher  ground  and  each  time  with  a 
further  extension  of  our  work.  Only  when  our  relief  was 
finished  were  we  shown  the  map,  which  by  this  means  we 
did.  not  see  till  we  were  in  a  position  to  understand  it. 

"  We  had  to  discover  the  truths  of  geometry  for  ourselves. 
After  being  once  put  in  the  way  of  it,  the  end  to  be  reached 
was  pointed  out  to  us,  and  we  were  left  to  work  alone.  It 
was  the  same  with  arithmetic,  which  we  did  aloud,  without 
paper.  Some  of  us  became  wonderfully  quick  at  this,  and 
as  charlatanism  penetrates  everywhere,  these  only  were 
brought  before  the  numerous  strangers  that  the  name  of 
Pestalozzi  daily  attracted  -to  Yverdun.  We  were  told  over 
and  over  again  that  a  great  work  was  going  on  in  our  midst, 
that  the  eyes  of  the  world  were  upon  us,  and  we  readily 
believed  it. 


256         PESTALOZZI:    HIS  LIFE  AND    WORK. 

"  The  Pestalozzian  Method,  as  it  was  somewhat  ostenta- 
tiously called,  was,  it  is  true,  an  enigma,  not  only  to  us  but 
to  our  teachers,  who,  like  the  disciples  of  Socrates,  each 
interpreted  the  master's  doctrine  in  his  own  way.  But  we 
were  still  far  from  the  time  when  these  divergencies  resulted 
in  discord,  and  when  the  chief  masters,  after  each  claiming 
to  be  the  only  one  who  had  understood  Pestalozzi,  ended 
by  declaring  that  Pestalozzi  had  not  understood  himself. 

"  At  the  time  of  my  first  appearance  among  the  healthy, 
happy  children  gathered  within  these  walls,  scenes  like 
those  in  Moliere's  Le  Bourgeois  Gcntilhomme,  which  were 
destined  ultimately  to  result  in  the  ruin  of  the  institute, 
had  not  yet  taken  place.  At  this  time,  indeed,  belief  in 
Pestalozzi  still  united  the  members  of  his  large  family.  Not 
that  he  had  not  already  given  signs  of  that  lack  of  adminis- 
trative ability  which  afterwards  became  so  evident.  He 
had  no  sense  of  order,  no  gift  for  managing.  In  his  childish 
simplicity  he  could  not  be  suspicious.  Having  no  belief  in 
evil,  he  was  easily  deceived,  and  bound,  sooner  or  later,-  to 
have  serious  disappointments ;  but  at  the  time  of  which  I 
speak,  he  commanded  devotion  and  obedience  from  all. 

"  One  instance  will  show  you  the  kind  of  spirit  that  pre- 
vailed in  the  early  days  of  the  institute. 

"  These  educators,  who  afterwards  filled  the  world  with 
their  quarrels,  received  no  payment  in  money.  Their  daily 
wants  were  provided  for,  and  they  asked  nothing  more.  The 
money  received  from  the  pupils  was  kept  in  Pestalozzi's 
room,  and  all  the  masters  had  access  to  it,  so  that  if  one  of 
them  wanted  a  coat,  or  a  pair  of  boots,  he  just  took  what 
he  needed.  This  state  of  things  lasted  nearly  a  year  without 
any  serious  inconvenience.  It  was  almost  a  return  to  the 
communism  of  the  early  Christians." 

Soon  after  Vulliemin  left  the  institute,  its  outward 
splendour  and  reputation  were  still  further  increased,  the 
propagation  of  its  method  received  a  new  and  powerful  im- 
petus, and  some  of  its  principles  began  to  take  definite  root 
in  the  educational  system  of  a  whole  nation.  This  was  a 
consequence  of  the  battle  of  Jena,  after  which,  Prussia, 
smarting  under  her  defeat  and  humiliation,  resolved  to  adopt 
the  remedial  measures  that  Pestalozzi  had  so  long  been 
preaching. 


FIRST  YEARS  AT   YVERDUN.  257 


When  Frederick  William  the  Third  saw  his  monarchy 
crushed  by  the  loss  of  a  single  battle,  he  boldly  made  up  his 
mind  for  the  slow  and  laborious,  but  only  sure  method  of 
restoring  it,  exclaiming : 

"  We  have  lost  in  territory,  in  power,  and  in  splendour ; 
but  what  we  have  lost  abroad  we  must  endeavour  to  make 
up  for  at  home,  and  hence  my  chief  desire  is  that  the  very 
greatest  attention  be  paid  to  the  instruction  of  the  people." 

The  king  was  not  alone  in  Prussia  in  desiring  a  reform 
of  public  education.  Many  of  the  best  minds  had  been  con- 
sidering the  question  and  making  plans  and  suggestions  for 
a  long  time,  but  nothing  had  as  yet  been  done. 

Queen  Louisa  also  used  her  influence  in  the  matter.  An 
entry  in  her  private  diary  runs  ih\\s :  "  I  am  reading 
Leonard  and  Gertrude,  and  enjoy  transporting  myself  to 
this  Swiss  village.  If  I  were  my  own  mistress,  I  should  at 
once  go  to  Switzerland  and  see  Pestalozzi.  Would  that  I 
could  take  his  hand,  and  that  he  might'  read  my  gratitude 
in  my  eyes !  .  .  .  With  what  kindness  and  ardour  he 
works  for  the  good  of  his  fellow-men  !  Yes,  in  the  name  of 
humanity,  I  thank  him  with  my  whole  heart."  Later  on, 
when  Zeller  was  sent  to  Koenigsberg  to  teach  according  to 
Pesfalozzi's  method,  the  queen  took  a  keen  interest  in  the 
experiment,  and  often  visited  the  new  school. 
?  During  the  winter  of  1807-8,  Fichte  delivered  in  Berlin 
I  his  Discourses  to  the  German  Nation.  It  will  be  remem- 
bered that  he  had  visited  Pestalozzi  in  1793,  and  that,  struck 
by  the  truth  of  his  views,  he  had  promised  to  make  them 
j  known  in  Germany.  In  these  discourses  he  kept  his  word, 
'  and  without  any  hesitancy,  for  he  was  fully  convinced  of 
the  truth  of  what  he  urged,  and  knew  that  by  speaking  thus 
he  was  doing  a  philanthropic  and  patriotic  act.  After  show- 
ing that  education  is  the  only  means  of  raising  a  nation,  he 
gave  an  account  of  Pestalozzi  and  his  work,  and  declared 
that  no  reform  of  public  instruction  could  be  efficacious  and 
salutary  unless  based  on  Pestalozzi's  teaching.1 

On  the  llth  of  September,  1808,  Altenstein,  of  Koeniga- 
borg,  one  of  the  king's  ministers,  wrote  to  Pestalozzi : 

1  Discourses  IX.  and  X. 


258          PESTALOZZI:  HIS  LIFE  AND    WORK. 

"  His  Majesty  the  King,  being  anxious  that  some  active 
efforts  should  be  made  to  improve  the  state  of  popular  educa- 
tion, which  I  am  aware  is  the  object  of  your  constant  solici- 
tude, has  entrusted  me,  as  minister,  with  the  management 
of  educational  matters  in  the  Prussian  provinces  of  his  states. 
Being  fully  convinced  of  the  great  value  of  the  method  you 
have  invented  and  so  successfully  practised,  I  hope  that,  by 
introducing  it  into  our  elementary  schools,  I  may  be  enabled 
to  bring  about  a  complete  reform  of  public  instruction  in 
our  royal  provinces,  a  reform  from  which  I  shall  look  for  the 
most  valuable  results  on  the  development  of  the  people. 

"Amongst  the  various  steps  towards  this  end  that  I  am 
thinking  of  taking,  one  of  the  most  important  will  certainly 
be  the  sending  of  two  young  men  to  you  to  study  your  system 
of  education  and  methods  of  teaching  at  the.  very  fountain- 
head.  They  will  not  confine  themselves  merely  to  the  con- 
sideration of  a  few  particular  points,  but  they  will  endeavour 
to  understand  your  system  as  a  whole  and  in  all  its  different 
bearings.  •  Under  the  direction  of  its  venerable  inventor  and 
his  worthy  colleagues,  they  will  be  prepared,  not  only  in 
mind  and  judgment,  but  also  in  heart,  for  the  noble  vocation 
which  they  are  to  follow,  and  they  will  be  filled  with  a  sense 
of  the  holiness  of  their  task,  and  with  new  zeal  for  the  work 
to  which  you  have  devoted  your  life.  To  ensure  the  success 
of  the  step  we  are  taking,  I  am  anxious  to  know  from  you 
yourself  under  what  conditions  these  young  men  will  be 
best  able  to  absorb  your  method ;  of  what  age  and  character 
they  should  be,  for  instance,  and  how  much  instruction  they 
should  already  possess.  This  information  will  enable  us  to 
send  you  only  such  persons  as  you  would  desire  to  receive." 

This  letter  shows  us  with  what  serious  decision  and  with 
what  scrupulous  care  Prussia  now  set  out  on  the  path  which 
was,  in  time,  to  restore  it  to  its  former  position.  And  it 
was  not  merely  two  pupils  that  were  sent  to  Pestalozzi, 
but  seventeen,  all  of  whom  spent  three  years  at  Yverdun, 
at  the  expense  of  their  government.  Most  of  them  after- 
wards became  distingiiished  men ;  amongst  others,  we  may 
mention  the  well-known  names  of  Henning,  Dreist  and 
Kaverau.1  Prussia  was  not  the  only  country  that  sent 

1  An  idea  of  tbe  results  of  the  experiment  may  be  gathered  from 
7.  Cousin's  report  on  public  instruction  in  i'ru.-sia 


FIRST   YEARS  AT   Y VERDUN.  259 

student-teachers  to  Pestalozzi ;  the  kings  of  Denmark  and 
Holland  also  sent  two  each,  and  many  came  from  other  parts 
of  Germany.  Sometimes  Pestalozzi  had  as  many  as  forty 
about  him  at  a  time. 

But,  in  our  opinion,  it  was  Saxony  that  most  successfully 
carried  out  its  educational  reforms.  For  a  long  time  the 
man  in  whom  the  control  of  the  Saxon  schools  was  vested 
was  Justiis  Blochmann,  a  former  pupil  and  distinguished 
collaborator  of  Pestalozzi,  and  it  was  probably  owing  to  his 
influence  that  the  tone  of  popular  instruction  in  Saxony 
became  more  distinctly  moral  and  religious  and  more 
thoroughly  Christian  than  it  did  in  Prussia.  In  the  great 
international  competition  of  a  few  years  ago,  it  was  the 
primary  schools  of  Saxony  that  took  the  first  place. 

The  ardour  with  which  Germany,  and  especially  Prussia, 
adopted  Pestalozzi's  method,  attracted  the  attention  of  many 
other  countries  to  the  institute  of  Yverdun ;  pupils  poured 
in  from  all  parts  of  the  globe,  visitors  became  more  numerous 
than  ever,  and  included  not  only  those  who  took  a  serious 
interest  in  education,  but  mere  sight-seers,  princes,  generals, 
bankers,  and  a  host  of  others,  who  made  a  point  of  seeing 
Pestalozzi,  as  they  made  a  point  of  seeing  a  lake  or  a  glacier. 
Such  people  as  these  generally  went  away  disappointed. 

This  great  and  unintelligent  popularity,  unparalleled  in 
the  history  of  any  educational  establishment  before  that 
time,  had  the  most  unfortunate  consequences.  Not  only  were 
the  lessons  daily  troubled  by  the  numerous  visitors,  but 
parents  came  from  different  countries  and  begged  for-  an 
instruction  for  their  children  adapted  to  the  customs  and 
circumstances  of  their  homes,  a  demand  which  Pestalozzi, 
anxious  to  lose  no  opportunity  of  spreading  his  doctrine, 
was  often  unwise  enough  to  attempt  to  satisfy.  This  was 
undoubtedly  one  of  the  causes  of  the  confusion  which  after- 
wards invaded  the  system  of  studies  at  Yverdun. 

But  the  reputation  of  the  institute  also  brought  visitors 
of  another  sort  to  Pestalozzi — men  of  ability,  that  is,  who 
were  capable  of  turning  what  they  learnt  from  him  to  good 
advantage.  Amongst  these  we  must  mention  Charles  Hitter, 
who  exercised  so  great  an  influence  on  the  development  of 
geographical  science.  The  account  given  by  this  eminent 
man  of  the  state  of  the  institute  of  Yverdun  in  1807  and 
1809  is  particularly  valuable.  It  has  lately  been  made 


260         PESTALOZZ1 ' :    HIS  LIFE  AND    WORK. 

public  by  Professor  Vulliemin  in  an  article  in  the  Evangelical 
Christian,1  from  which  we  borrow  the  following  passages  : 

"  In  September,  1807,  a  German  tutor  arrived  at  Yverdun 
with  two  pupils  and  their  mother.  The  tutor  was  Charles 
Hitter,  his  pupils  the  young  Hollwegs,  of  Frankfort,  members 
of  a  great  banking  family,  whose  subsequent  fame  has  been 
due  in  no  small  measure  to  these  very  boys.  Ritter  was  not 
an  ordinary  tourist.  As  it  was  known  that  he  was  very 
eager  to  become  acquainted  with  Pestalozzi  arrd  his  method, 
he  was  warmly  welcomed  at  the  institute,  and  spent  a  busy 
week  of  educational  investigation  in  the  society  of  the  head 
of  this  large  family  and  his  chief  colleagues,  Niederer, 
Tobler,  Muralt  and  Krusi.  Not  a  day  passed  without  lec- 
tures and  discussions,  in  the  course  of  which  education  was 
looked  at  from  very  many  different  sides.  It  was  at  the 
time  of  Pestalozzi's  greatest  prosperity;  and  although  his. 
sensitive  heart  had  already  detected  the  germs  of  those 
dissensions  which  were  afterwards  to  destroy  his  work  at 
Yverdun,  he  still  retained  many  of  his  earlier  illusions,  and 
it  was  with  the  most  complete  faith  in  the  power  of  his 
method  that,  with  Niederer's  help,  he  had  just  made  a  public 
report  on  the  state  of  his  institution.  What  Ritter  saw  at 
Yverdun  filled  him  with  admiration  and  respect.  He  felt 
that  he  was  in  the  presence  of  an  exceptional  nature,  of  a 
great-souled,  self-sacrificing  man,  who  was  entirely  possessed 
by  a  stimulating  and  original  idea,  and  in  whom  child-like 
simpleness  and  humility  mingled  with  unbounded  confidence 
in  the  greatness  of  the  task  he  had  set  himself  to  do.  Trans- 
ported thus  into  a  world  that  was  new  to  him,  Ritter  could 
not  but  feel  its  elevating  and  ennobling  influence. 

"  Two  years  later  (the  1st  of  October,  1809)  he  repeated 
his  visit  to  Yverdun.  '  After  journeying  in  rain  and  sun,' 
he  writes  to  a  friend,  '  I  once  more  came  to  my  dear  Yverdun, 
where  I  was  received  like  an  old  friend  of  the  family. 
Amongst  the  many  joys  that  Providence  has  bestowed  upon 
me,  and  for  which,  on  account  of  their  great  influence  on 
my  development,  I  shall  never  cease  to  be  thankful,  I  set 
the  highest  store  by  those  that  I  have  tasted  in  the  society 

1  Charles  Bitter,  the  Geographer  ;  biographical  fragments  (Evangelical 
Christian,  1869,  p.  21). 


FIRST  YEARS  AT   Y VERDUN.  261 

of  my  good  friends  Pestalozzi,  Niederer,  Mieg,  von  Turck, 
Schmidt,  and  others,  men  who,  in  different  degrees,  are  very 
dear  to  me,  since  we  are  all  striving  for  the  same  great  end, 
the  raising  of  humanity  by  education.' 

"  Great  changes  had  taken  place  in  the  institution ;  but 
though  their  sphere  of  action  had  considerably  increased, 
these  energetic  men  still  remained  the  same.  The  noble 
old  man,  always  a  child  in  heart,  was  kept  by  his  eager 
enthusiasm  in  an  almost  constant  state  of  feverish  activity ; 
his  wife  was  a  model  of  unassuming  virtue,  delicacy  and 
kind-heartedness.  '  In  their  company,'  says  Hitter,  '  my 
hours  pass  like  minutes.  When  evening  comes,  seated 
between  the  father  and  mother  of  this  great  family,  I  share 
with  my  friends  a  simple  repast,  at  which  dishes  are  passed 
and  glasses  filled  amid  many  a  pleasant  jest. 

" '  The  work  has  grown  to  such  proportions  that  its  founder 
can  no  longer  attend  to  the  whole  of  it.  There  are  more 
than  a  hundred  and  fifty  pupils,  and  as  many  as  forty 
student-teachers  of  various  ages,  some  of  whom  are  already 
engaged  in  active  work  outside  the  institute,  and  all  of  whom 
apply  themselves  diligently  to  the  study  of  the  '  method.'  I 
have  not  been  able  to  ascertain  the  number  of  masters.  Add 
to  all  this  a  school  for  girls,  two  private  establishments,  and 
a  number  of  teachers  who  live  with  their  pupils  in  the  town, 
but  give  and  receive  lessons  in  the  institute,  and  you  will 
have  some  idea  of  what  is  going  on  here. 

" '  Pestalozzi  himself  is  unable  to  apply  his  own  method 
in  any  of  the  simplest  subjects  of  instruction.  He  is  quick 
in  grasping  principles,  but  is  helpless  in  matters  of  detail; 
he  possesses  the  faculty,  however,  of  putting  his  views  with 
such  force  and  clearness  that  he  has  no  difficulty  in  getting 
them  carried  out.  He  was  right,  indeed,  when  he  said  to 
me,  speaking  of  himself:  '  I  cannot  say  that  it  is  I  who  have 
created  what  you  see  before  you.  Niederer,  Krusi  and 
Schmidt  would  laugh  at  me  if  I  called  myself  their  master ; 
I  am  good  neither  at  figures  nor  writing ;  I  know  nothing 
about  grammar,  mathematics,  or  any  other  science ;  the 
most  ignorant  of  our  pupils  knows  more  of  these  things  thau 
I  do ;  I  am  but  the  initiator  of  the  institute,  and  depend 
on  others  to  carry  out  my  views.' 

" '  He  spoke  the  truth,  and  yet  without  him  nothing  that 
is  here  would  exist.  He  has  no  gift  for  guiding  or  govern* 


262          PESTALOZZI:    HIS  LIFE  AND    WORK. 

ing  this  great  undertaking,  and  yet  it  continues.  He  has 
sacrificed  everything  he  possessed  to  this  end  ;  even  now 
he  knows  nothing  of  the  value  of  money,  and  is  as  ignorant 
of  accounts  as  a  child.  Even  his  speech,  which  is  neither 
German  nor  French,  is  scarcely  intelligible,  and  yet  in  every- 
thing he  is  the  soul  of  this  vast  establishment.  All  his 
words,  and  more  especially  his  religious  utterances,  sink 
deep  into  the  hearts  of  his  pupils,  who  love  and  venerate 
him  as  a  father.' 

"  Hitter  continues  :  '  If  Pestalozzi  is  the  inspirer,  Niederer 
is  the  philosopher  of  the  enterprise,  for  it  is  he  that  develops 
all  Pestalozzi's  ideas,  and  he  does  so  in  a  way  which  would 
do  honour  to  the  very  greatest  teachers  of  philosophy.  To 
him,  however,  philosophy  is  inseparable  from  religion,  and 
the  only  wisdom  is  in  Jesus  Christ.  His  conversation  is 
elevating,  inspiring  and  comforting.  Inferior  as  I  am  to 
him  in  depth  and  power,  he  is  attracted  by  me,  because,  in 
spite  of  all  I  can  say  to  the  contrary,  he  finds  in  me  a  certain 
harmony  which  he  is  conscious  of  lacking.  His  thoughts 
give  him  no  repose,  and  he  frequently  suffers  from  the 
effects  of  overwork.  He  is,  indeed,  always  in  a  state  either 
of  intense  mental  activity  or  of  complete  mental  exhaustion. 
His  wealth  of  ideas  is  most  striking  when  he  is  talking  of 
the  history  of  religion,  of  the  life  and  teaching  of  Christ,  of 
the  Gospel  of  St.  John,  or,  in  another  connection,  of  the  open 
nature  of  the  child,  and  of  the  intimate  connection  between 
psychology  and  the  study  of  languages.  Were  he  inclined 
to  give  the  results  of  his  studies  to  the  world,  he  would 
have  much  to  say  on  these  subjects  that  would  be  very  valu- 
able ;  but  always  dissatisfied  with  what  he  does,  he  will  not 
consent  to  publish  what  he  feels  to  be  imperfect. 

"  '  Pestalozzi's  most  energetic  helper  in  the  development 
of  his  system  is  Schmidt,  a  Tyrolese,  whose  method  of  teach- 
ing drawing  and  geometry  has  been  published,  and  is  to  be 
followed  by  that  for  arithmetic  and  algebra.  The  '  method  ' 
has  been  more  fully  applied  to  these  branches  than  to  any 
other.  Problems  in  geometry,  trigonometry  and  measure- 
ment of  solids  are  nothing  to  Schmidt's  pupils.  In  a  large 
class,  containing  from  fifteen  to  twenty  groups  of  boys,  all 
at  different  stages  of  progress,  I  have  seen  Schmidt  teaching 
alone,  encouraging  and  helping  everybody,  and  keeping  every- 
body occupied,  without  a  single  false  step.  This  man,  the 


FIRST   YEARS  AT   YVERDUN.  263 

son  of  a  peasant,  is  but  twenty- three  years  of  age ;  he  is 
religious  and  simple-hearted,  but  with  a  will  of  iron.' 

"  Such  was  Ritter's  opinion  of  the  Yverdun  institute  in 
1809.  But  his  enthusiasm,  as  is  evident,  got  the  better  of 
his  judgment.  Niederer's  characteristic  cordiality  had  kept 
him  blind  to  his  rationalizing  tendency,  nor  had  he  dis- 
covered behind  Schmidt's  rough  energy  the  preoccupations 
of  a  mind  determined  to  command.  His  stay  at  Yverdun  had 
been  too  short  to  allow  him  to  discover  the  weak  spots  in 
the  men  and  their  work,  and  the  strongly  favourable  impres- 
sions produced  upon  him  by  the  good  side  of  all  he  saw 
rendered  him  incapable  of  calm  criticism.  Nor  was  he  at 
that  time,  though  sincerely  religious,  sufficiently  acquainted 
with  the  spirit  of  the  Gospel  to  make  it  a  test  of  Pestalozzi's 
work.  Perhaps  it  was  as  well  for  him  that  he  did  not  dis- 
cover the  real  secret  of  its  weakness  at  first.  The  impulsion 
he  received  was  all  the  stronger,  all  the  more  salutary ;  for 
there  can  be  no  doubt  that,  independently  of  what  he  learned 
in  other  respects,  it  was  his  relations  with  Pestalozzi  which 
awoke  in  him  the  ideas  which  he  was  so  soon  afterwards  to 
apply  in  his  geographical  studies.  To  quote  his  own  words 
on  this  subject : 

"  '  I  have  seen  more  than  the  paradise  of  Switzerland,  for 
I  have  seen  Pestalozzi,  and  recognized  how  great  his  heart 
is,  and  how  great  his  genius ;  never  have  I  been  so  filled 
with  a  sense  of  the  sacredness  of  my  vocation,  and  the  dig- 
nity of  human  nature,  as  in  the  days  that  I  spent  with  this 
noble  man.  I  cannot  think  without  emotion  of  this  little 
company  of  brave  men,  struggling  with  the  present  that  the 
future  may  be  the  better,  and  finding  alike  their  joy  and 
their  reward  in  the  hope  they  have  of  raising  children  to 
.  the  true  dignity  of  humanity.  I  have  watched  the  growth  of 
this  precious  plant,  I  have  even  drunk  of  the  waters  and 
breathed  the  air  that  give  it  life. .  I  have  learned  to  under- 
stand this  '  method,'  which,  based  upon  the  nature  of  the 
child,  develops  so  naturally  and  so  freely.  It  is  for  me  now 
to  apply  it  in  the  domain  of  geography,  where  Nature  has 
been  too  long  neglected.' 

"  '.  .  .  I  left  Yverdun  fully  determined  to  keep  the 
promise  I  made  to  Pestalozzi  of  introducing  his  method  into 
the  study  of  geography,'  he  writes  later,  '  and  already  I 
am  reducing  the  chaos  to  order ;  I  hold  in  my  hand,  as  it 


264         PESTALOZZI:    HIS  LIFE  AND    WORK. 

were,  the  clue  to  such  a  knowledge  of  the  globe  as  will  satisfy 
both  the  mind  and  heart,  reveal  the  laws  of  a  higher  wisdom, 
and  contribute  not  a  little  to  the  science  of  physico- 
theology.' 

"  He  certainly  kept  his  promise,  for  his  great  work  on 
comparative  geography  may  be  said  to  have  founded  a  new 
science.  He  changed  geography,  which  till  then  had  been 
a  mere  collection  of  facts,  into  an  organic  science,  thus 
throwing  light  on  the  relations  between  the  physical  and 
intellectual  diversities  of  race.  No  doubt  he  owed  much  to 
many  other  men,  and  particularly  to  William  Humboldt  whose 
labours  gave  a  new  direction  to  the  study  of  languages, 
but  it  is  to  Pestalozzi  that  he  traces  the  first  impulsion 
given  to  his  mind,  and  the  chief  part  of  what  was  valuable 
in  his  work.  Forty  years  after  his  visit  to  Yverdun,  we 
heard  him  admit  this  himself : 

"  '  Pestalozzi,'  he  said,  '  knew  less  geography  than  a  child 
in  one  of  our  primary  schools ;  yet  it  was  from  him  that  I 
gained  my  chief  knowledge  of  this  science,  for  it  was  in 
listening  to  him  that  I  first  conceived  the  idea  of  the 
natural  method.  It  was  he  who  opened  the  way  to  me,  and 
I  take  pleasure  in  attributing  whatever  value  my  work  may 
possess  entirely  to  him.'  "  l 

We  have  not  hesitated  to  quote  at  this  length,  because 
any  who  are  anxious  to  thoroughly  understand  Pestalozzi's 
work  will  be  glad  to  have  the  opinions  of  two  such  men  a3 
Hitter  and  Vulliemin.  As  the  article  from  which  we  have 
been  quoting,  however,  anticipates  a  little,  we  shall  have 
to  return  to  certain  points  later  on. 

Amongst  the  other  notable  men  who  visited  the  Yverdun 
institute  during  this  first  period  of  its  existence,  we  must 
mention  von  Raumer,  who,  at  Fichte's  suggestion,  left  Paris, 
where  he  was  studying  theology,  to  come  to  Pestalozzi.  He 
stayed  long  enough  to  ge*t  a  thorough  understanding  of  the 
work  of  the  establishment  in  all  its  details ;  but  though  he 
had  a  great  admiration  for  its  venerable  founder,  he  was  not 
blind  to  its  defects,  and  even  proposed  certain  alterations, 
which,  however,  were  not  carried  out.  He  afterwards  went 

1  It  was  to  Pestalozzi  that  Bitter  dedicated  the  first  volume  of  hia 
Geography. 


FIRST   YEARS  AT   YVERDUN.  265 

back  to  Germany,  his  native  country,  and  wrote  a  History 
of  Pedagogy,  in  which  the  praise  he  bestows  on  the  insti- 
tute is  not  altogether  unmixed. 

Chavannes'  Life  of  Pestalozzi  (Lausanne,  1853),  contains 
the  testimony  of  a  pupil  from  Vevey,  afterwards  a  minister 
of  the  Gospel,  as  to  the  state  of  the  establishment  at  this 
time.  We  quote  the  following  extracts  : 

"I  entered  in  June,  1808,  when  I  was  about  seven  and 
a  half  years  old,  but  I  only  stayed  nine  months.  It  was  the 
most  brilliant  period  of  the  institute.  There  were  as  many 
as  a  hundred  and  thirty-seven  pupils  there,  including  not 
only  Swiss,  Germans,  and  Frenchmen,  but  Italians,  Spaniards, 
Russians,  and  even  Americans. 

"  In  the  matter  of  food  and  cleanliness  we  were  not  very 
well  looked  after ;  but  though  at  first  I  suffered  very  much, 
being  so  far  from  Vevey  and  my  parents,  I  gradually  became 
accustomed  to  the  new  state  of  things,  and  grew  very  fond 
of  my  kind  masters,  who  not  only  took  part  in  all  our 
amusements,  but  even,  by  an  excess  of  liberty,  allowed  us 
to  '  thou '  them.  I  was  especially  attached  to  their  excellent 
chief,  Pestalozzi.  I  seem  still  to  see  this  kind  old  man, 
with  his  knee-breeches  half-buttoned,  his  stockings  down-, 
his  collar,  hair  and  beard  in  disorder,  and  yet  with  such  a 
quick,  tender  glance  in  his  eyes,  and  such  a  kind  smile  upon 
his  lips,  that  everybody  felt  attracted  to  him,  men,  women 
and  children  gladly  accepting  his  affectionate  embraces. 

"I  should  add,  further,  in  praise  of  this  excellent  man, 
that  if  he  did  not  develop  in  me  the  fear  of  God  or  faith  in 
the  Saviour,  he  at  least  taught  me  to  do  my  work  from  a 
sense  of  duty,  avoiding  as  far  as  possible  the  dangerous 
stimulus  of  praise  and  reward.  Having  been  called  to  his 
room  one  day  with  a  young  Italian  who  had  given  some 
caiise  of  complaint,  and  whom  he  gently  reproved,  I  thought 
for  a  moment  that  the  same  thing  was  going  to  happen  to 
me ;  but  the  good  old  man,  turning  to  me,  said  that  my 
masters  were  quite  satisfied  with  me,  and  that  he  would 
send  word  of  this  to  my  parents,  who  would  doubtless  be 
very  glad  to  hear  it.  I  thus  found  that  I  had  done  my  duty 
without  being  praised  before  my  companions,  and  almost 
without  knowing  it. 

"  Upon  the  whole  I  may  say  that,  although  I  was  very 
19 


266         PESTALOZZI:    HIS  LIFE  AND    WORK. 

young,  and  spent  but  a  very  short  time  with  this  extra- 
ordinary man,  he  has  left  an  ineffaceable  impression  upon 
me,  and  that  I  look  upon  him  as  one  of  the  benefactors  of 
my  youth. 

"  It  often  happened,  I  remember,  that  one  of  the  masters, 
seated  near  the  fireplace  while  Pestalozzi  pronounced  his 
morning  meditation,  would  eagerly  write  it  down.  One  of 
these  improvised  discourses,  delivered  by  Pestalozzi  on  a 
Friday  morning  in  winter,  has  been  preserved.  As  it  gives 
a  fairly  good  idea  of  what  Pestalozzi's  Christianity  was  at 
that  time.  I  do  not  hesitate  to  give  it  in  full : 

"  '  No  day  in  the  week  is  so  important  as  this  day  on 
which  Jesus  Christ  suffered  and  died.  We  were  talking 
yesterday  of  the  repose  of  winter.  I  tried  to  make  you 
understand  that  no  seed  thrives  unless  the  ground  has  been 
well  prepared;  when  it  has  been  badly  prepared,  neither 
the  winter  nor  its  snows  can  help  forward  the  work  of  the 
sun,  and  in  spite  of  the  repose  of  winter,  the  seed  perishes. 

"  '  Similarly  a  man  cannot  hope  for  a  peaceful  death  and 
a  happy  resurrection  unless  the  seeds  of  his  life  are  likely 
to  yield  a  good  harvest.  He  cannot  lie  down  to  sleep  in 
peace  unless  his  day's  work  is  done. 

"  '  When  we  once  realize  that  this  is  true,  we  see  that 
Christ's  sacrifice  and  death  were  but  the  accomplishment 
of  His  work  on  earth.  His  last  words  were :  "  It  is 
finished,"  and  as  He  was  satisfied  that  His  work  was  well 
finished,  He  died  in  peace.  Had  his  work  not  been  finished, 
He  would  not  have  died. 

" '  By  living  for  His  heavenly  Father  and  for  humanity, 
He  earned,  as  it  were,  His  repose. 

" '  Would  that  we  might  follow  His  example,  and  recognize 
that  it  is  the  only  way  to  eternal  repose.  The  man  who 
does  not  attempt  to  fulfil  his  duties,  and  who  consequently 
does  not  tend  towards  perfection,  will  never  obtain  this 
rest. 

"  '  How  difficult  it  is  for  us  teachers  to  strive  towards 
this  end  throughout  our  lives,  nay,  even  for  a  single  hour' 
Jesus  alone  could  say  :  "  All  is  finished  "  ;  everything  that 
man  imdertakes  is  paltry  and  incomplete.  .  .  . 

"  '  We  must  be  always  asking  ourselves :  Have  I  tried  to 
work  at  my  own  improvement  ?  Does  my  conduct  show 
that  I  have  advanced  somewhat  in  the  wav  of  sanctification  ? 


FIRST   YEARS  AT   Y VERDUN.  267 

.  .  No  man  can  meet  death  with  tranquillity  but  he 
who  has  fully  accomplished  his  task.  .  .  . 

"  '  We  accomplish  nothing ;  on  all  sides  we  are  powerless  ; 
our  action  is  broken  and  fragmentary ;  and  yet  we  shall  only 
find  rest  in  so  far  as  we  strive  after  perfection. 

" '  Try  to  love  God,  your  parents,  and  each  other  more 
and  more. 

" '  He  who  develops  and  perfects  his  inner  nature  will 
gradually  find  the  strength  and  means  to  accomplish,  his 
task  with  regard  to  outer  things.'  " 

We  may  add  that  Pestalozzi  pronounced  these  meditations 
at  morning  and  evening  worship,  walking  up  and  down 
before  the  assembled  school  in  the  large  hall  which  served 
for  a  chapel.  The  service  closed  with  singing  and  prayer, 
the  prayer  being  sometimes  silent. 

Pestalozzi  had  founded  at  Yverdun,  not  far  from  the 
Castle,  a  girls'  school,  the  pupils  of  which  received  lessons 
from  some  of  the  masters  in  the  institute,  and  were  always 
present  at  evening  worship.  Pestalozzi  had  entrusted  the 
direction  of  this  establishment  to  his  daughter-in-law,  who, 
it  will  be  remembered,  had  been  the  good  angel  of  the 
Burgdorf  institute,  and  who  had  now  married  a  second 
husband,  Mr.  Kuster. 

Mrs.  Kuster's  chief  assistant  was  Miss  Rosette  Kasthoffer, 
of  Berne,  an  intelligent  person,  who  afterwards  married 
Niederer,  and  became  the  directress  of  the  school,  which 
finally  became  independent  of  Pestalozzi.  Under  Mr.  and 
Mrs.  Niederer  it  acquired  much  celebrity.  They  carried  it 
on  in  Yverdun  till  1838,  and  then  in  Geneva  till  Niederer's 
death. 

It  was  also  Pestalozzi  who  attracted  to  Yverdun  Mr. 
Conrad  Naef,  of  Zurich,  who  in  1811  founded  an  institute 
for  the  deaf  and  dumb,  an  establishment  which  always 
enjoyed  a  thoroughly  deserved  reputation,  first  under  the 
management  of  the  founder,  and,  after  his  death,  under  that 
of  his  son. 

The  various  testimony  quoted  above  has  already  given 
our  readers  some  idea  of  what  the  institute  of  Yverdun 
was  like  during  the  years  of  its  prosperity ;  we  must  now 
add  a  few  touches  to  complete  the  picture. 

The  pupils  enjoyed  a  great  deal  of  liberty.     As  the  two 


268         PESTALOZZI:    HIS  LIFE  AND    WORK. 

doors  of  the  Castle  were  open  all  day,  and  there  was  no 
porter,  they  could  go  in  and  out  at  all  hours  as  if  they  were 
at  home,  and  they  never  abused  this  freedom.  Their  lessons 
lasted  generally  ten  hours  a  day — the  first  beginning  at  six, 
the  last  ending  at  eight.  But  none  of  these  lessons  lasted 
more  than  an  hour,  and  they  were  all  followed  by  a  short 
interval,  during  which  the  children  generally  changed  rooms. 
Besides,  some  of  these  lessons  consisted  of  gymnastics,  or 
some  sort  of  manual  labour,  such  as  working  in  cardboard 
or  gardening.  The  last  hour  of  the  day  was  a  free  hour, 
devoted  to  what  the  children  called  their  own  work.  They 
could  do  anything  they  liked — draw,  or  read  geography,  or 
write  home,  or  put  their  note  books  in  order. 

The  youngest  masters,  who  were  generally  Burgdorf 
pupils,  were  in  charge  out  of  school.  They  slept  in  the 
dormitories,  and,  in  recreation  time,  played  with  the  pupils 
with  as  much  enjoyment  as  the  children  themselves.  They 
worked  in  the  garden  with  them,  bathed  with  them,  walked 
with  them,  and  were  in  every  respect  on  the  friendliest 
terms  with  them.  They  were  divided  into  sets,  each  set 
taking  its  turn  every  third  day,  for  this  superintendence 
kept  them  busy  from  morning  till  night. 

Three  times  a  week  the  masters  rendered  an  account  to 
Pestalozzi  of  the  pupils'  work  and  behaviour.  The  latter 
were  summoned  by  the  old  man,  five  or  six  at  a  time,  to 
receive  his  exhortations  or  remonstrances.  He  would  take 
them  one  by  one  into  a  corner  of  his  room,  and  ask  them  in 
a  low  voice  if  they  had  not  something  to  tell  him,  to  ask 
him.  He  tried  in  this  way  to  gain  their  confidence,  to  find 
out  if  they  were  happy,  what  pleased  them,  or  what  troubled 
them.  The  work  of  the  week  was  reviewed  at  a  general 
meeting  every  Saturday. 

The  faithful  Lisbeth,  the  brave  woman  who  had  brought 
Pestalozzi  such  timely  succour  in  his  distress  at  Neuhof, 
had  followed  her  master  to  Yverdun  as  housekeeper.  She 
had  married  Krusi's  brother,  who  filled  the  post  of  con- 
fidential servant  at  the  institute. 

She  had  brought  with  her  to  Yverdun  the  economical  and 
culinary  habits  of  German-Switzerland,  which  were  some- 
what too  simple  and  primitive  to  suit  the  tastes  of  the 
people  she  had  come  amongst.  The  food,  however,  though 
not  very  delicately  prepared,  was  plain,  wholesome,  and 


FIRST    YEARS  AT   Y  VERDUN.  269 

abundant,  and  the  meals,  as  is  customary  in  Germany, 
numerous. 

At  seven  o'clock,  after  the  first  lesson,  the  pupils  washed 
in  the  courtyard.  The  water,  pumped  from  the  well,  ran 
through  a  long  pipe  with  holes  on  both  sides,  from  which 
ench  child  received  a  pure,  fresh  stream,  jugs  and  basins 
being  unknown.  After  this  came  breakfast,  consisting  of 
soup.  Lessons  began  again  at  eight.  At  ten  came  an 
interval,  when  any  one  who  was  hungry  could  get  dried 
fruit  and  bread  from  the  housekeeper.  At  mid-day  there 
was  an  hour's  recreation  for  bathing  or  prisoner's- base  on 
the  grass  behind  the  lake.  At  one  o'clock  dinner  of  soup, 
meat,  and  vegetables.  Lessons  again  from  half-past  one  till 
half-past  four.  Then  the  afternoon  meal,  either  of  cheese, 
fruit,  or  bread  and  butter.  Each  could  take  his  share  away 
with  him,  and  eat  it  where  he  liked  during  the  play-hour, 
which  lasted  till  six  o'clock,  and  which  was  passed,  when 
the  weather  was  fine,  either  behind  the  lake  or  in  the  large 
garden  adjoining  the  Castle,  where  every  child  had  his  own 
little  plot.  From  six  to  eight  more  lessons,  and  then  supper, 
which  was  much  the  same  as  dinner. 

When  we  consider  the  material  conditions  of  the  life  of 
the  masters  in  the  Yverdun  institute,  we  can  have  no  doubt 
either  of  their  devotion  to  Pestalozzi  and  his  work  or  of  the 
lofty  and  disinterested  motives  which  first  attracted  them 
to  him,  and  then  kept  them  with  him.  Their  lodging  was 
even  more  primitive  than  their  living.  Some  of  the  oldest 
of  them  lived  outside  the  Castle,  but  the  rest  had  not  even 
a  private  room,  and  when  they  wanted  to  work  alone,  were 
obliged  to  construct  little  wooden  cabins  in  the  upper,  unin- 
habited storeys  of  the  round  towers  that  crowned  the  four 
corners  of  the  old  building. 

Pestalozzi's  rooms  were  on  the  second  floor  of  the  north 
front.  He  often  invited  the  masters  there  to  take  coffee  with 
him,  and  not  infrequently  held  receptions  in  the  evening,  to 
which  some  of  the  pupils  were  asked,  and  where  occasionally 
townspeople  or  visitors  might  be  seen.  His  wife  did  the 
'  honours  with  a  pleasing  and  touching  grace.  Although  still 
delicate  from  the  hardships  she  had  suffered  at  Neuhof,  she 
had  preserved  all  her  freshness  of  imagination,  as  well  as 
a  certain  poetical  feeling,  and  this  made  her  a  most  pleasant 
centre  of  conversation. 


270         PESTALOZZI:    HIS  LIFE  AND    WORK. 

As  for  Pestalozzi  himself,  lie  accosted  everybody  with 
gentle  kindliness.  His  conversation  was  animated  and 
clever,  full  of  imagination  and  originality,  but  difficult  to 
follow,  on  account  of  his  pronunciation.  But  he  was  never 
long  the  same,  passing  in  a  moment  from  frank,  open- 
hearted  gaiety  to  profound  and  even  melancholy  meditation. 
Always  absent-minded  and  preoccupied,  he  was  a  prey  to 
a  feverish  restlessness,  and  could  never  sit  down  for  long 
together ;  he  used  to  walk  up  and  down  the  corridors  of  the 
Castle,  one  hand  behind  hiS  back,  or  in  the  breast  of  his 
coat,  the  other  holding  the  end  of  his  necktie  between  his 
teeth.  He  used  to  appear  every  day  like  this  in  the  middle 
of  the  lessons.  If  the  teaching  satisfied  him,  his  face  would 
become  radiant  with  pleasure,  he  would  caress  the  children 
and  say  a  few  pleasant  words  to  them  ;  but  if,  on  the  other 
hand,  he  was  not  satisfied,  he  would  angrily  leave  the  room 
at  once,  slamming  the  door  behind  him. 

He  continued  to  work  with  indefatigable  zeal  at  improving 
his  "  method,"  and  making  new  applications  of  it.  Every 
morning,  as  early  as  two  o'clock,  he  called  an  under-master 
to  his  bedside  to  write  from  his  dictation.  But  he  was 
rarely  satisfied  with  his  own  work,  and  made  continual 
corrections,  often  starting  afresh. 

At  this  time  Pestalozzi  had  set  up  a  printing  press  in 
the  Castle,  which  he  kept  fairly  busy.  But  the  Yverdun 
publications  of  1807-1811  no  longer  bear  in  every  part  the 
stamp  of  the  simple,  original,  impulsive  genius  of  the  head 
of  the  institute ;  they  were  not  so  much  his  work,  indeed, 
as  that  of  his  collaborators. 

First  came  a  pamphlet,  edited  by  Niederer,  with  the  title  : 
On  the  Principles  and  Plan  of  a  Journal  Announced  in 
1807  ;  then,  A  Glance  at  My  Views  and  Educational  Efforts, 
in  which  the  ideas  and  even  the  style  of  Pestalozzi  can  be 
easily  recognized  ;  lastly,  A  Report  to  Parents  and  the  Public 
or.  the  Yverdun  Institute.  This  last  publication  contains  a 
little  boasting  and  many  promises ;  both  in  matter  and 
manner  it  would  seem  to  be  merely  an  expression  of 
Niederei's  enthusiasm. 

At  the  same  time  the  Weekly  Journal  for  the  Education 
of  Humanity  was  commenced.  It  was  published  from  1807 
to  1811,  and  forms  four  volumes.  It  contains  articles  by 
Pestalozzi's  chief  helpers,  and  very  many  by  Pestalozzi 


FIRST   YEARS  AT   Y VERDUN.  271 

himself,  nearly  all  retouched,  however,  by  Niederer,  who 
seems  to  have  thought  it  his  duty  to  make  his  master's  style 
a  little  more  philosophical.  Amongst  the  latter  is  the  note- 
worthy discourse  pronounced  by  Pestalozzi,  in  1809,  at  a 
gathering  of  the  Society  of  the  Friends  of  Education,  at 
Lenzburg,  but  even  this  has  received  improvements  and 
considerable  additions  at  the  hand  of  his  philosopher-in- 
chief. 

It  was  at  this  time  and  in  the  same  press  that  the 
Exercises  on  Numbers  and  Forms,  the  work  of  Schmidt, 
were  printed. 

The  works  of  Pestalozzi  which  were  edited  by  Niederer 
have  a  distinct  value  of  their  own,  and  are  well  worth  con- 
sulting. Their  importance  results  not  merely  from  the 
ideas  furnished  by  Pestalozzi,  but  also  from  those  added  by 
Niederer,  which  are  not  without  a  certain  interest,  and 
explain  in  part  the  discord  which  was  so  soon  to  break 
out. 

This  is  not  the  place  to  describe  these  writings  and  discuss 
the  share  taken  by  each  in  their  compilation ;  it  would 
but  interrupt  our  story  without  giving  us  any  new  facts 
sufficiently  well  established  and  sufficiently  important  to 
help  us  in  our  study  of  Pestalozzi's  thought.  We  reserve 
this  discussion,  therefore,  for  the  appendix. 

But  before  finishing  this  chapter  we  must  speak  for  a 
moment  of  the  methods  of  physical  training  and  manual 
work  employed  in  the  institute,  and  of  the  various  festivals 
kept  by  the  pupils.  That  we  may  not  have  to  return  to 
this  subject,  we  shall  not  hesitate  to  anticipate  somewhat. 

When  the  weather  was  favourable,  some  hours  in  the 
afternoon  were  given  every  week  to  military  exercises.  The 
pupils  formed  a  little  regiment  of  their  own,  to  which 
neither  flag,  drums,  band,  nor  armoury  were  wanting  ;  they 
soon  learned  to  go  through  the  most  complicated  manoeuvres 
with  wonderful  precision.  When  there  was  any  shooting 
to  be  done,  the  non-commissioned  officers  had  to  make  the 
cartridges  under  the  direction  of  an  instructing  officer. 
From  time  to  time  they  had  a  sham-fight  in  some  suitable 
spot  a  few  miles  from  the  town.  They  used  then  to  start 
very  early  in  the  morning,  with  a  waggon  for  the  provisions 
and  ammunition.  Many  parents  and  sight-seers  often  joined 
the  party,  so  that  it  was  a  great  day  for  the  pupils.  Some- 


272         PESTALOZZ1 :    HIS  LIFE  AND    WORK. 

times  there  was  target-shooting,  the  prize  for  which  was 
a  ewe  with  its  lamb,  and  the  use  of  a  small  shed  in  the 
garden. 

Gymnastics,  prisoner's-base  and  other  games  went  on 
regularly.  There  was  skating  as  well  in  the  winter ;  and 
in  summer,  bathing  in  the  lake  and  mountain  excursions. 
The  first  day  of  spring  was  celebrated  every  year  by  a  walk 
on  the  neighbouring  heights ;  sometimes,  however,  a  late 
snow-storm  would  render  this  impossible,  in  which  case  the 
children  consoled  themselves  by  going  the  first  fine  day. 

We  know  that  manual  labour  had  a  place  in  Pestalozzi's 
scheme ;  it  was  often  tried  at  the  institute,  but  never  kept 
up  in  a  regular  manner.  The  great  number  and  diversity 
both  of  the  pupils  and  their  occupations  proved  an  insur- 
mountable obstacle.  Gardening  met  with  most  success. 
Sometimes  the  pupils  had  a  little  patch  of  their  own  to  culti- 
vate ;  sometimes  they  were  told  off  in  twos  and  threes  to 
work  for  a  few  hours,  under  the  direction  of  the  gardener. 
They  did  fairly  well  at  bookbinding  and  cardboard  work  ; 
they  also  made  solids  for  the  study  of  geometry. 

But  it  was  especially  on  the  occasion  of  the  festivals,  of 
.vrhich  we  have  still  to  speak,  that  the  greatest  demands 
were  made  on  their  skill  and  judgment. 

The  end  of  the  year  was  devoted  to  making  New  Year 
albums  to  send  to  the  parents,  containing  drawings,  maps, 
mathematical  problems,  fragments  of  history,  descriptions  of 
natural  objects,  and  literary  compositions.  On  New  Year's 
day  there  was  a  religious  service,  with  a  discourse  by  Pesta- 
lozzi ;  a  distribution  of  presents  from  the  parents  ;  a  grand 
dinner  ;  and,  in  the  evening,  a  torch-light  procession  through 
the  town  (each  pupil  made  his  own  torch),  followed  by  a  ball, 
to  which  the  girls  of  the  neighbouring  institute  were  invited, 
together  with  a  certain  number  of  guests  from  the  town.  For 
the  next  few  days  very  little  work  was  done,  everybody  being 
occupied  in  preparing  for  Pestalozzi's  birthday,  the  12th  of 
January.  The  pupils  of  each  class  decorated  their  room, 
transforming  it  into  a  woodland  scene,  with  cottage,  chapel, 
ruins,  and  sometimes  a  fountain,  which  was  so  arranged 
as  to  play  on  Pestalozzi's  entrance.  Fir-branches,  ivy,  and 
moss  were  fetched  in  large  quantities  from  the  neighbouring 
forests,  and  transparencies,  with  emblems  and  inscriptions, 
were  secretly  prepared ;  for  the  decoration  of  each  room  was 


FIRST   YEARS  AT   Y VERDUN.  273 

to  be  a  surprise,  not  only  to  Pestalozzi,  but  to  all  the  other 
pupils.  Songs  were  also  learnt  in  Pestalozzi's  honour.  The 
leading  idea  of  most  of  the  inscriptions  was  :  "  In  summer 
you  take  us  to  see  Nature  ;  to-day  we  are  trying  to  bring 
Nature  to  you."  Often  too,  on  that  day,  the  pupils  gave 
a  dramatic  performance,  the  subject  of  which  was  generally 
chosen  from  among  the  great  episodes  of  Swiss  history  in 
the  middle  ages.  On  these  occasions  the  actors  made  their 
own  dresses  and  armour  from  cardboard  and  coloured  paper. 
We  take  the  following  passages  from  the  journal  kept  by 
Merian,  of  Basle,  who  was  a  pupil  of  Pestalozzi's  from  1806 
to  1810,  and  who  afterwards  became  an  engineer  at  Neu- 
chatel : 

"  12th  January,  1808. — Pestalozzi's  birthday  festival. 
At  the  end  of  the  day  the  richer  children  made  a  collection 
amongst  themselves  for  the  poor  of  the  town.  Mrs.  Pesta- 
lozzi and  Mrs.  Kuster  took  charge  of  the  money,  which 
amounted  to  about  four  pounds. 

"  30th  September,  1809.— Fortieth  anniversary  of  '  Father ' 
Pestalozzi's  marriage.  Great  rejoicings,  discourse  by 
Niederer ;  beautiful  songs,  room  decorated  with  garlands. 
Grand  supper  for  three  hundred  people  in  five  rooms. 
Afterwards  dance,  opened  by  Mr.  and  Mrs.  Pestalozzi  alone, 
in  the  old-fashioned  way."  l 

It  was  the  custom,  on  Christmas  Eve,  to  set  up  a  great 
fir-tree  in  the  room  in  which  the  services  were  held,  lighted 
with  candles  and  loaded  with  golden  nuts,  apples,  etc.  This 
was  the  traditional  and  popular  German  Christmas-tree,  at 
that  time  unknown  in  French-speaking  countries,  but  since 
then  naturalized  everywhere.  There  were  also  religious 
discourses  and  prayers,  interspersed  with  joyful  songs,  in 
which  the  children  always  took  an  extreme  pleasure. 

Indeed,  singing  played  a  great  part  in  Pestalozzi's  insti- 
tute, and  was  the  joy  of  nearly  everybody  in  the  house. 
There  was  singing  everywhere  and  always.  Two  Swiss, 
Pfeiffer  and  Nsegeli,  had  brought  Pestalozzi  valuable  help 
in  this  matter  by  publishing  some  admirable  collections  of 
sweet,  simple  songs  for  children,  in  which  Germany,  it 

1  Pestalozzi  was  then  sixty-three  years  old,  and  his  wife  seventy. 


274         PESTALOZZ1:    HIS  LIFE  AND    WORK. 

must  be  confessed,  is  very  rich.  We  were  also  taught  a 
few  French  songs,  but  they  were  far  from  satisfying  us 
to  the  same  extent.  Thanks,  however,  to  many  praiseworthy 
efforts,  France  has  sensibly  improved  in  this  respect. 

We  have  tried  to  show  what  the  "Yverdun  institute  was 
like  during  the  first  years  of  its  existence.  At  that  time 
its  fame  had  spread  far  .and  wide,  and  yet,  as  we  shall  now 
see,  it  already  contained  a  defect  which  was  destined  to 
result  in  its  ruin. 


CHAPTER  XIV. 

DECLINE   OF   THE  INSTITUTE. 

Pestalozzi  the  first  to  point  it  out.  Its  causes.  Pestalozzi  asks 
the  Swiss  Diet  to  inspect  his  institute.  Father  Girard's 
report.  Niederer's  controversy  with  tfte  newspapers  that 
disparage  the  work.  He  quarrels  with  Schmidt.  The  latter 
leaves  the  institute.  Pestalozzi' s  yearly  discourses.  New 
helpers.  French  pupils  and  masters  at  Yverdun.  Alexander 
Boniface.  Illness  of  Pestalozzi.  The  Allies  in  Switzerland. 
Pestalozzi  and  the  Czar  at  Basle.  The  Peace  appears  to 
bring  new  prosperity  to  the  institute.  Numerous  pupils 
and  visitors.  Doctor  Bell  at  Yverdun.  Internal  troubles 
at  the  institute.  Schmidt  recalled.  Death  of  Mrs,  Pestalozzi. 
The  other  masters  impatient  with  Schmidt's  spirit  of 
domination.  They  leave  the  institute. 

AT  the  end  of  1807,  when  the  establishment  at  Yverdun  was 
at  the  zenith  of  its  fame  and  exciting  the  admiration  of 
scholars  and  sovereigns ;  wnen  it  was  attracting  crowds  of 
pupils,  disciples  and  visitors  from  every  country,  and  filling 
everybody  connected  with  it  with  joy  and  hope,  one  man 
alone  was  dissatisfied,  one  man  alone  saw  that  it  could  not 
endure,  that  it  was  doomed,  like  a  plant  at  whose  root  there 
gnaws  an  undying  worm.  This  man  was  Pestalozzi  himself. 

It  was  his  habit  on  New  Year's  day  to  assemble  the 
whole  of  his  establishment,  and,  after  passing  in  review  the 
events  of  the  past  year,  to  give  expression  to  his  hopes  and 
fears  for  the  future,  speaking  quite  freely  all  that  was  in 
his  heart. 

His  discourse  of  the  1st  of  January,  1808,  is  full  of 
sadness  and  discouragement ;  he  pronounced  it  by  the  side 
of  his  open  coffin,  which  he  had  ordered  to  be  brought  into 
the  room.  It  runs  as  follows  : 

"  The  old  year  is  gone  ;  the  new  one  is  here.  I  am  still 
in  your  midst,  but  feel  none  of  the  joy  you  would  expect  me 


276         PESTALOZZI:    HIS  LIFE  AND    WORK. 

to  feel.  I  seem  to  see  my  hour  approaching ;  I  seem  to  hear 
a  voice  crying  above  my  head :  '  Give  an  account  of  thy 
stewardship,  for  thou  must  die.' 

"Can  I  give  a  satisfactory  account?  Have  I  been  a  faith- 
ful steward  towards  God,  towards  men,  towards  myself? 

"  I  am  happy,  and  the  sound  of  my  happiness  is  in  my 
ears  like  the  noise  of  bees  seeking  a  home.  But  I  must  die, 
and  what  does  this  noise  tell  me  ?  That  I  do  not  deserve 
happiness,  that  I  am  not  happy.  The  past  year  has  not  been 
a  happy  one.  The  ice  has  broken  under  me  just  where  I 
wanted  to  walk  most  surely ;  my  life-work  has  betrayed 
defects  which  I  had  never  suspected  ;  the  very  bond  which 
unites  us  has  shown  itself  weak  where  I  thought  it  strongest. 
I  have  seen  perdition  where  I  looked  for  salvation,  anger 
where  I  looked  for  peace,  coldness  where  I  looked  for  love. 
I  have  seen  trust  withdrawn  at  a  time  when  I  seemed 
unable  to  breathe,  to  live,  without  it.  ...  There  is  my 
coffin.  What  else  is  left  to  me  but  the  hope  of  the  tomb  ? 
My  heart  is  lacerated;  I  am  no  longer  what  I  was  yesterday; 
love,  trust  and  hope  have  forsaken  me.  Why  should  I  still 
live  ?  Why  did  God  preserve  me  so  miraculously  from  the 
feet  of  the  horses  ? l  The  bandage  which  blinded  me  to 
the  truth  about  my  life  is  torn  away.  The  dream  which 
deceived  me  as  to  my  value  and  happiness  is  gone.  What 
is  there  left  for  me  to  do  in  a  world  where  I  have  made 
nothing  but  mistakes,  where  I  have  ever  deceived  myself, 
and  where,  in  an  hour,  I  shall  do  so  again?  Yet  this  present 
moment,  this  first  hour  of  the  year,  should  at  least  put  the 
whole  truth  clearly  and  plainly  before  our  eyes.  I  have 
made  far  too  much  of  a  happiness  I  did  not  deserve.  .  .  . 

"  Poor,  weak,  humble,  unworthy,  incapable  and  ignorant, 
I  yet  set  myself  to  my  work.  The  world  accounted  it 
madness,  but  God's  hand  was  with  me.  My  work  prospered. 
I  found  friends  who  loved  both  it  and  me.  I  knew  not  what 
I  did,  I  hardly  knew  what  I  wanted.  And  yet  my  work 
prospered.  It  came  from  nothing,  as  the  world  at  its 


1  In  December,  1807,  as  Pestalozzi  was  walking  with  Krnsi  on  a  very 
dark  night,  he  was  knocked  down  by  some  horses,  trampled  upon,  aud 
thrown  into  a  ditch,  from  which  Krusi  drew  him  out  with  his  clothes 
torn,  but  without  a  scratch.  Pestalozzi  at  once  returned  thanks  to  God 
for  this  miraculous  escape. 


DECLINE   OF  THE  INSTITUTE.  277 

creation.  It  is  God's  work.  .  .  .  Realize,  my  friends, 
that  it  is  God's  work.  And  may  God's  work  unite  us  anew, 
not  as  the  wicked  are  united,  but  as  angels  with  angels. 
You  were  astonished  that  I  was  saved  from  the  horses'  feet, 
but  my  work  has  been  preserved  more  marvellously  even 
than  my  poor  body.  It  is  a  miracle  that  I  am  still  alive, 
but  it  is  a  still  greater  miracle  that  my  work  should  have 
escaped  the  dangers  of  Burgdorf,  Munchenbuchsee,  and 
Yverdun ! 

"  New  dangers  threaten  it,  which,  with  God's  help,  it  will 
surmount.  But  shall  I  surmount  them?  My  heart  is  full 
of  doubt  and  fear ;  I  feel  that  I  do  not  deserve  my  happi- 
ness, that  it  is  about  to  finish.  But  my  work  will  subsist, 
for  gold  is  not  consumed,  but  purified,  in  the  fire.  .  .  . 

"  But  it  will  not  subsist  through  me.  It  cannot ;  I  am 
not  worthy  that  it  should ;  for  I  have  been  weak  in  truth 
and  love.  .  .  .  Happiness  I  have  had,  though  never  for 
long.  Often  have  I  allowed  it  to  escape,  where  a  child  might 
have  held  it.  ...  What  God  was  doing  for  me  I  looked 
upon  as  my  own  work.  In  my  madness  I  thought  that  it 
was  I  who  worked  the  miracles  with  which  He  surrounded 
me.  I  accepted  praise  for  what  I  had  not  done,  and  thought 
myself  the  author  of  a  work  which  was  not  mine.  .  .  . 

"  This  work  was  founded  by  love,  but  love  has  disappeared 
from  our  midst.  It  could  not  indeed  stay,  for  we  had  not 
foreseen  the  demands  it  would  make  upon  us.  The  work, 
too,  required  patience,  and  I  had  none.  I  was  even  impatient 
when  I  should  have  been  grateful.  0  God,  how  did  I 
come  to  this,  how  did  I  fall  so  low  ?  Let  me  confess  my 
fault  before  Thee  and  these  my  friends.  My  blindness  has 
exceeded  belief.  With  miracles  Thou  didst  build  up  my 
work,  with  miracles  support  it,  and  yet  I  fancied  that  it 
needed  little  support.  Afterwards,  when  I  came  to  see  how 
much  strength  it  required,  I  tried  to  make  others  do  what  I 
myself  neglected.  I  inconsiderately  insisted  upon  what 
I  should  have  humbly  prayed  for,  and  tried  to  maintain  the 
life  of  my  establishment  by  forces  that  my  faults  and  weak- 
nesses had  banished  from  our  midst.  And  so  there  have 
been  misunderstandings  amongst  us,  and  bonds  are  broken 
that  I  thought  fast  tied  for  ever,  and  hearts  estranged  that 
I  thought  indissolubly  united. 

"  Such  is  my  position.     The  coffin  you  see  there  is  my 


278          PESTALOZZI:    HIS  LIFE  AND    WORK. 

only  consolation.  I  can  no  longer  do  anything  to  help.  The 
poison  at  the  heart  of  our  work  is  spreading,  and  the  praise 
of  the  world,  which  is  ours  to-day,  will  but  encourage  it. 

"  0  God,  grant  that  our  blindness  may  pass  away  !  The 
laurels  heaped  upon  us  do  but  cover  a  skeleton,  for  it  is 
only  the  skeleton  of  my  work  which  is  before  us,  before  my 
eyes  and  yours.  And  I  see  that  the  laurels  which  cover  it 
will  be  consumed  by  fire,  the  irresistible  fire  of  affliction 
which  is  coming  upon  my  house.  My  work  will,  indeed, 
subsist,  but  the  consequences  of  my  mistakes  will  remain. 
They  will  crush  me  ;  the  tomb  is  my  only  refuge. 

"But  though  I  go,  you  will  remain.  Would  that  my 
words  might  be  burnt  into  your  hearts  ! 

"Friends,  be  better  than  I  was,  that  God  may  achieve, 
throiigh  you,  the  work  I  have  failed  to  achieve.  Do  not,  by 
your  faults,  heap  obstacles  in  your  path,  as  I  have  done. 
Be  not  deceived,  as  I  have  been,  by  the  appearance  of 
success. 

"You  are  called  to  a  great,  an  utter  sacrifice;  without  it 
you  will  not  complete  my  work. 

"Enjoy  the  present,  enjoy  the  honour  which  men  are 
heaping  upon  us,  but  remember  that  it  will  pass  like  the 
flower  of  the  fields,  which  blooms  for  a  moment  and  is 
gone. 

"  Once  more,  look  at  my  coffin.  Perhaps  this  very  year 
it  will  receive  my  bones  or  those  of  a  woman  who,  for  my 
sake,  has  sacrificed  all  the  happiness  of  her  life.  ...  I 
already  seem  to  see  these  walls  hung  with  black,  because 
this  coffin  is  beneath  the  ground,  because  I  or  my  wife,  or 
perhaps  both  of  us,  have  gone  down  to  the  grave.  May  we 
rest  in  peace !  May  you  shed  tears  of  love  and  pardon  over 
us,  and  may  God's  blessing  remain  with  you.  I  await  my 
end  calmly  and  hopefully.  And  yet  there  is  another  possi- 
bility, the  mere  thought  of  which  fills  me  with  dread :  I 
might  live,  to  see  my  work  ruined  by  my  mistakes.  This 
would  be  a  calamity  that  I  should  not  have  strength  to 
endure.  I  should  hang  my  room  with  black,  and  hide  myself 
for  ever  from  the  eyes  of  men,  for  whose  society  I  should  no 
longer  deem  myself  worthy." 

This  discourse  is  too  characteristic  for  us  to  be  satisfied, 
like  other  biographers,  with  quoting  a  few  isolated  pas- 


DECLINE  OF  THE  INSTITUTE.  279 

sages.  We  have,  however,  abridged  it  as  far  as  possible, 
cutting  out  everything  that  was  only  the  repetition  or 
development  of  ideas  already  expressed. 

Can  this  indeed  be  the  head  of  a  great  institution  speaking 
to  his  assistants  ?  Is  it  conceivable  that  now,  at  the  moment 
of  its  greatest  prosperity,  he  should  feel  obliged  to  speak 
thus  ?  There  is  nothing  in  this  extreme  openness  and 
humility  on  Pestalozzi's  part  to  surprise  us ;  but  even  allow- 
ing for  this,  what  reasons  could  he  have  had  for  taking  this 
view  of  the  position  of  his  institute  and  of  its  future  ?  We 
must  endeavour  to  make  his  reasons  clear. 

In  the  first  place,  Pestalozzi  at  that  time  felt  instinctively, 
though  perhaps  vaguely,  that  his  work,  so  far  as  its  realiza- 
tion in  an  educational  institution  was  concerned,  was  an 
impossibility.  He  explains  this  at  the  end  of  his  life  in  the 
book  entitled,  My  Experiences,  where  he  says :  "  I  was 
already  lost  at  Burgdorf  by  my  attempt  to  do  what  was 
utterly  foolish  and  absurd."  Indeed,  when  we  remember 
that  his  plan  in  teaching  was  to  follow  from  the  earliest 
childhood  an  order  entirely  different  from  that  followed 
elsewhere,  an  order,  that  is,  which  should  be  natural  and 
unbroken;  and  when  we  remember,  further,  that  he  intended 
that  the  power  acquired  by  the  child  in  its  first  exercises 
should  enable  it  to  surmount  subsequent  difficulties  by  its 
own  efforts,  we  can  hardly  understand  that  he  should  have 
thought  it  possible  to  pursue  such  a  course  in  an  establish- 
ment which  received  children  from  every  country  and  of 
every  age.  It  often  happened,  for  instance,  that  big  boys 
arrived  at  the  institute  who  could  not  be  placed  in  the 
elementary  classes  with  the  little  children,  and  who  yet  were 
not  sufficiently  prepared  for  the  higher  classes.  Some  com- 
promise therefore  was  necessary,  the  result  of  which  was 
generally  disastrous,  not  only  to  the  method,  but  also  to  the 
instruction  of  the  pupils. 

In  the  next  place,  Pestalozzi  based  morality  and  discipline 
on  the  relations  of  the  family  life  ;  he  wanted  to  be  a  father 
to  his  children.  This  beautiful  and  touching  fiction  of 
paternity,  which  had  been  a  living  and  healthful  reality  in  his 
first  experiments,  could  no  longer  be  maintained  in  an  institu- 
tion which,  from  the  number  of  its  pupils  and  their  many 
differences  of  language,  culture,  habits,  and  antecedents,  was 
almost  a  world.  It  failed  at  Yverdun,  in  spite  of  heroic 


2So         PESTALOZZI:    HIS  LIFE  AND    WORK. 

efforts.  In  vain  did  lie  divide  the  pupils  amongst  his  assist- 
ants, and  ask  them,  as  far  as  possible,  to  take  his  place,  and 
keep  him  informed  of  their  needs  and  progress  ;  in  vain  did 
he  send  for  them  in  turn  to  his  study  for  friendly  talks,  and 
employ  caresses  and  exhortations  when  he  met  them.  They 
still  called  him  "  Father  Pestalozzi,"  it  is  true,  but  he  no 
longer  knew  them  as  a  father  should  know  his  children.  And 
thus  the  discipline  of  affection  slowly  disappeared,  without 
being  replaced  by  the  more  or  less  military  discipline  of  the 
school,  and  the  home-life  at  Yverdun  soon  developed  into  a 
sort  of  ill-regulated  public  life. 

We  have  seen  that  Pestalozzi  especially  complains  that 
love  and  concord  no  longer  exist  in  the  institute  ;  that  was, 
indeed,  the  chief  evil  and  the  real  cause  of  its  ruin.  But  he 
blames  himself  for  it,  attributing  it  to  his  impatience  and 
exacting  demands.  In  this,  however,  he  is  doing  himself  a 
flagrant  injustice  and  with  a  magnanimity  which  should 
have  touched  those  who  were  really  in  fault.  Niederer  and 
Schmidt  were  two  powerful  aids,  both  very  valuable  to  him, 
and  in  a  measure  necessary  for  the  execution  of  his  projects. 
But  neither  of  these  two  men  could  identify  himself  with 
him  as  his  earlier  helpers  had  done,  with  perfect  simplicity 
and  self-forge tfulness. 

Niederer  had  grasped  the  master's  thought  by  its  philo- 
sophical and  speculative  side,  and  had  formulated  it  in  a  way 
which,  without  entirely  satisfying  Pestalozzi,  yet  seemed 
useful  for  spreading  it  abroad,  and  making  it  attractive  to 
scholars.  It  was  in  the  direction  of  this  philosophical  idea, 
as  he  himself  had  conceived  it,  that  Niederer  was  always 
encouraging  Pestalozzi,  opposing  everything  that  seemed  to 
him  a  deviation  from  the  principle.  But  Niederer  had  no 
talent  for  practical  questions  of  administration  and  discipline, 
and  in  this  respect  was  of  little  help  to  Pestalozzi. 

Schmidt,  on  the  contrary,  saw  nothing  more  in  the  master's 
system  than  an  excellent  method  for  teaching  mathematics, 
to  which  he  had  applied  it  with  a  success  which  aroused 
the  admiration  of  the  visitors,  and  contributed  more  than 
anything  else  to  the  reputation  of  the  institute.  In  addi- 
tion to  this,  in  matters  of  discipline  and  administration,  his 
strong  common-sense  and  iron  will  made  up  for  what  Pesta- 
lozzi lacked.  He  was  pre-eminently  practical,  and  this  was 
what  attracted  Pestalozzi  to  him.  He  cared  little  for  prin- 


DECLINE   OF  THE  INSTITUTE.  281 

ciples  when  it  was  a  question  of  maintaining  or  extending 
the  reputation  and  material  prosperity  of  the  institute. 

It  is  clear  that  these  two  men  exercised  a  contradictory 
influence  on  Pestalozzi;  each  wished  to  lead  him  his  own 
way.  They  could  neither  understand  nor  respect  each  other. 
Their  antagonism  had  broken  up  the  harmony  of  this  groat 
family,  and  hence  Pestalozzi  had  been  able  to  exclaim  so 
sorrowfully,  "  Love  has  disappeared  from  our  midst." 

Such  were  the  defects  that  Pestalozzi  had  discovered  in  his 
institute  at  the  beginning  of  1808.  For  more  than  fifteen 
years  he  struggled  to  remedy  them,  and  not  indeed  without 
occasional  and  momentary  successes  ;  but  at  last,  after  many 
changes  of  fortune,  he  was  obliged  to  succumb,  and  thus 
suffered  the  very  misfortune  he  had  so  much  dreaded,  the 
misfortune  of  outliving  all  his  enterprises. 

We  have  still  to  relate  the  different  phases  of  this  sad 
period  of  decadence.  In  view  of  the  inevitable  end,  the 
story  would  have  but  little  interest  if  we  had  not  always 
with  us  Pestalozzi's  unfailing  courage  and  genius;  for, 
although  the  old  man  became  more  and  more  incapable  in  the 
ordinary  matters  of  life,  although  he  ended  by  submitting 
blindly  to  the  will  of  others  and  making  mistake  after 
mistake,  he  yet  preserved  to  the  very  last  both  his  ardent 
love  for  the  poor  and  weak  ones  of  this  world,  and  the 
powerful  originality  of  a  mind  always  occupied  with  the 
educational  reform  which  had  been  the  one  aim  of  his  life. 
In  following  Pestalozzi's  thought  from  this  point,  we  shall 
find  valuable  help  in  the  discourses  he  was  in  the  habit  of 
pronouncing  before  the  whole  school  at  such  times  as  Christ- 
mas and  the  New  Year,  or  on  his  birthday.  These  discourses 
were  the  outpourings  of  his  heart,  in  which  all  his  fears  and 
hopes,  sorrows  and  joys,  thoughts  and  feelings,  were  laid 
absolutely  bare.  They  are  full,  too,  of  his  religious  faith, 
his  love  for  men,  his  ardent  desire  to  raise  the  people,  and 
the  educational  views  by  which  he  sought  to  reach  his  end. 
Most  of  the  discourses  have  been  published  at  different 
times.  They  are  all  to  be  found  in  Seyffarth,  volume  xiii. 

Pestalozzi's  discourse  of  the  1st  of  January,  1808,  had 
painfully  surprised  all  the  masters,  but  they  were  not  at  all 
convinced  that  the  evil  which  he  so  bemoaned  really  existed. 
They  all  endeavoured  to  reassure  the  old  man  by  pointing  to 
the  prosperity  and  increasing  renown  of  the  institute ;  and, 
20 


282          PESTALOZZI:    HIS  LIFE  AND    WORK. 

this  year  particularly,  the  admiration  of  visitors  and  the 
number  of  enthusiastic  reports  that  were  published  on  all 
sides,  seemed  to  lend  colour  to  their  arguments.  And  so 
Pestalozzi  took  heart  again,  and,  for  a  moment,  his  old 
illusions  revived.  But  his  confidence  was  of  short  duration, 
and  in  spite  of  all  his  assistants  could  urge  to  the  contrary, 
the  feeling  that  the  institute  was  in  danger  was  soon  stronger 
in  him  than  ever.  At  last,  to  finally  dispel  his  fears,  the 
masters  proposed  that  he  should  ask  the  Helvetian  Diet  to 
make  an  official  inspection  of  the  institute,  and  to  this  the 
old  man  consented.1 

Pestalozzi's  request  reached  the  Diet  at  Freiburg,  in  June, 
1809,  and  shortly  afterwards  a  Commission  was  duly  ap- 
pointed to  inspect  the  institute,  composed  of  Abel  Merian, 
member  of  the  Petty  Council  at  Basle ;  Trechsel,  professor 
of  mathematics  at  Berne  ;  and  Father  Girard,  of  Freiburg. 

The  commissioners  arrived  at  the  Castle  in  November, 
1809,  and  spent  five  days  there,  interrogating  masters  and 
pupils,  and  examining  everything  with  the  greatest  care. 

It  is  curious  to  see  how  Father  Grirard  speaks  of  this 
inspection  in  the  book  he  published  thirty-seven  years  after- 
wards, entitled  :  On  the  Systematic  Teaching  of  the  Mother- 
tongue? 

"  To  cultivate  the  minds  of  the  young  was  my  intention  as 
it  was  my  duty,  but  I  did  not,  as  yet,  understand  how  useful 
the  mother-tongue  might  be  made  in  this  respect.  It  was 
only  on  the  occasion  of  an  official  visit  paid  to  Pestalozzi's 
institute  at  Yverdun  that,  by  talking  with  my  two  worthy 
colleagues,  and  by  very  carefully  considering  the  official 
report  which  I  'had  been  charged  to  draw  up,  the  darkness 
in  which  I  had  been  groping  was  suddenly  dispelled.  On  a 
previous  visit,  I  had  remarked  to  my  old  friend  Pestalozzi 
that  mathematics  seemed  to  me  to  play  far  too  important  a 
pai't  in  his  school,  and  that  I  was  afraid  the  general  educa- 
tion of  his  children  would  suffer  from  it.  Whereupon  he 
answered  with  characteristic  heat :  '  The  fact  is,  I  do  not 

1  Schmidt  alone  was  opposed  to  tins  inspection,  feeling  that  the  system 
of  studies  in  tbe  institute  was  not  yet,  as  a  whole,  in  a  satisfactory  con- 
dition. 

'  Published  at  Paris  in  1846,  and  crowned  by  the  French  Academy. 


DECLINE   OF  THE  INSTITUTE.  283 

wish  my  children  to  know  anything  which  cannot  be  proved 
to  them  as  clearly  as  that  two  and  two  make  four.'  '  In  that 
case,'  I  said,  '  if  I  had  thirty  sons,  I  would  not  entrust  you 
with  one  of  them  ;  for  it  would  be  impossible  for  you  to 
show  him  as  clearly  as  that  two  and  two  are  four  that  I  am 
his  father,  and  that  it  is  his  duty  to  obey  me.'  This  brought 
about  a  retraction  of  the  exaggeration  into  which  he  had 
been  betrayed, — not  an  unusual  thing  with  this  impulsive 
genius, — and  we  soon  arrived  at  an  understanding. 

"  However,  so  great  was  the  attention  given  to  mathe- 
matics in  his  institute,  that  the  mother-tongue  was  Com- 
paratively neglected,  and  suffered  considerably  in  consequence. 
My  colleagues  and  myself  were  also  struck  by  another 
anomaly.  We  found  that  the  children  had  indeed  reached 
a  high  pitch  of  excellence  in  abstract  mathematics,  but  that 
in  all  ordinary  practical  calculations  they  were  inconceivably 
feeble." 

This  last  criticism  contains  a  manifest  error  on  Father 
Girard's  part,  which,  considering  his  high  position,  would 
certainly  be  most  astonishing,  if  we  did  not  know  how  hard 
it  is  to  place  ourselves  suddenly  at  a  point  of  view  totally 
different  from  that  to  which  we  have  been  long  accustomed. 
Abstract  calculations  were  precisely  what  Pestalozzi  would 
have  nothing  to  do  with ;  he  accustomed  his  children  to 
concrete  numbers  from  the  very  first,  and  all  the  ordinary 
problems  of  practical  life  they  solved  with  ease.  They 
worked  them,  however,  in  their  heads,  and  did  not  learn  till 
later  the  use  of  written  figures,  in  which  they  therefore 
remained  weak  and  unpractised  for  a  long  time.  But  it  is 
just  the  conventional  methods  necessitated  by  our  arbitrary 
written  system  that  constitute  an  abstract  calculation,  and 
yet  it  is  these  very  methods  that  Father  Girard  calls  the 
"  ordinary  practical  calculations  "  in  which  he  found  the  chil- 
dren so  "  inconceivably  feeble." 

The  examination  being  over,  the  masters  of  the  institute 
and  the  commissioners  separated,  not  very  satified  with  each 
other.  At  Yverdun  it  was  felt  that  the  report  would  be 
unfavourable.  Pestalozzi  had  expected  it,  but  Niederer  and 
those  who  shared  his  illusion  were  surprised  and  irritated 
by  it;  they  thought  themselves  misjudged.  It  had  been 
settled  that  written  documents  should  be  sent  to  the  com- 


284         PESTALOZZ1:    HIS  LIFE  AND    WORK. 

missioners  for  the  purpose  of  making  their  information  still 
more  complete,  and  a  very  lengthy  correspondence  now 
ensued  between  Niederer  and  Abel  Merian,  the  president  of 
the  Commission,  and  Father  Girard,  who  was  to  draw  up 
the  report.  Niederer  said  that  the  commissioners  had  not 
grasped  the  spirit  of  the  institution ;  that  they  had  only  seen 
the  changing  outward  form,  and  not  the  unchanging  essence  ; 
to  which  the  commissioners  made  answer  that  their  instruc- 
tions had  charged  them  to  examine  facts  and  not  ideas. 

In  a  letter  of  the  31st  of  January,  1810,  Father  Girard 
writes  to  Abel  Merian  that  he  is  surprised  at  not  having  yet 
received  the  documents  which  were  to  have  been  sent  from 
Yverdun,  and  adds : 

"  My  opinion  is  that  the  institute  was  not  worth  all  the 
attention  that  has  been  bestowed  upon  it.  Now  that  I  have 
considered  it  from  every  point  of  view,  I  am  inclined  to 
think  it  far  inferior  to  the  cantonal  school  of  Aarau,  and  the 
Institute  of  St.  Gallen,  to  say  nothing  of  older  institutions.  It 
is  inconceivable  that  it  should  have  obtained  such  celebrity 
and  favour." 

Some  time  afterwards  Pestalozzi  himself  expressed  his 
opinion  of  the  work  of  the  Commission  as  follows : 

"  The  commissioners  were  alarmed  at  the  very  outset  by 
seeing  how  entirely  we  neglected  the  teaching  of  certain 
common  subjects  which  are  treated  with  the  utmost  care  in 
the  smallest  schools,  and  that  being  so,  they  had  neither 
faith  nor  courage  to  go  deeper  into  the  matter,  and  much  of 
the  good  escaped  them  altogether. 

"  Their  report  did  our  work  much  harm,  and  placed  it 
much  lower  than  it  deserved." 

But  if  Pestalozzi  thought  the  commission  had  not  seen  all 
the  good,  Father  Girard  thought  it  had  not  seen  all  the 
bad ;  for  even  as  early  as  the  9th  of  December,  1809,  he 
had  written :  "  Besides,  many  things  were  concealed  from 
us." 

The  report  of  Father  Girard  appeared  in  French  in  Sep- 
tember, 1810,  and  the  German  translation  by  Bernard  Hiiber 
in  October.  It  was  drawn  up  with  great  moderation  and 
with  great  consideration  for  Pestalozzi,  who  could  certainly 


DECLINE   OF  THE  INSTITUTE.  285 

not  have  wished  for  a  more  worthy  judge.  Girard,  how- 
ever, pointed  out  serious  gaps  in  the  instruction  given  at  the 
institute.  He  praised  the  discipline,  but  declared  that  the 
religious  teaching  was  insufficient,  and  blamed  Niederer,  in 
whose  hands  it  had  been  left,  for  the  methods  he  had 
adopted.  He  found  fault  with  him,  for  instance,  for  begin- 
ning his  lessons  with  a  sort  of  natural  religion,  for  then 
passing  on  to  the  Old  Testament,  and  for  only  touching 
upon  the  New  in  his  preparation  of  pupils  for  the  Holy 
Communion,  at  the  special  request  of  parents. 

W«  are,  however,  in  a  position  to  affirm  from  our  own 
experience  that  such  was  not  Niederer's  habitual  plan.  In- 
deed, at  the  very  time  of  the  inspection,  we  were  following 
his  lessons  on  religion  in  a  class  of  children  of  from  eight  to 
nine  years  of  age,  where  we  began  by  reading  the  Gospel 
according  to  St.  Matthew,  learning  by  heart  a  portion  of  the 
Sermon  on  the  Mount.  But,  as  we  have  already  said,  none 
of  the  teaching  at  the  institute  of  Y verdun  was  very  regular 
or  connected,  except  perhaps  in  mathematics,  in  which  there 
was  not  much  alteration. 

The  report  of  Father  Girard  terminated  thus  : 

"The  teaching  given  at  Pestalozzi's  institute  is  not  in 
harmony  with  that  of  the  various  establishments  of  public 
instruction,  nor  has  the  institute  sought  to  establish  that 
harmony.  Resolved,  at  any  price,  to  seek  the  development  of 
the  faculties  of  the  child  according  to  the  principles  of  Pes- 
talozzi,  it  has  thought  only  of  its  own  views,  and  betrays  a 
burning  zeal  to  open  up  new  paths,  even  should  they  be  in 
opposition  to  those  established  by  usage.  Perhaps  it  was  the 
only  way  of  arriving  at  useful  discoveries,  but  it  has  made 
all  harmony  with  public  establishments  impossible.  The 
institute  goes  its  own  way,  and  public  establishments  go 
theirs,  and  it  is  not  probable  that  their  views  will  soon  coin- 
cide. It  is  a  sad  pity  that  the  force  of  events  should  always 
drive  Pestalozzi  from  the  path  laid  down  for  him  by  his 
zeal  and  goodness.  But  justice  will  always  be  done  to  his 
good  intentions,  his  noble  efforts,  and  his  unconquerable 
perseverance.  Let  us  take  advantage  of  the  excellent,  ideas 
which  form  the  basis  of  his  work,  and  follow  the  instructive 
examples  it  offers  us,  but  let  us,  at  the  same  time,  pity  the 
lot  of  a  man  whom  the  force  of  circumstances  has  always 


286          PESTALOZZI;    HIS  LIFE  AND    WORK. 

prevented  from  carrying  out  what  it   was   his  purpose  to 
do." 

This  report  was  presented  to  the  Diet,  which,  on  assem- 
bling at  Soleure  in  1811,  merely  voted  thanks  to  Pestalozzi, 
and  then  let  the  matter  drop. 

For  some  years  previously,  however,  the  work  of  Pestalozzi 
had  been  exposed  to  rather  severe  attacks  in  several  publica- 
tions in  Switzerland  and  Germany.  Every  reform  which  calls 
for  strenuous  efforts  and,  as  it  were,  mental  renovation,  always 
finds  adversaries  amongst  men  whose  reputation  is  already 
made,  and  who  believe  that  there  is  nothing  to  change  in 
their  theories  or  their  practice.  This  is  especially  the  case 
in  matters  of  education.  It  was  alleged  against  Pestalozzi, 
sometimes  that  his  ideas  were  not  new,  sometimes  that  they 
were  inapplicable  ;  even  the  real  defects  of  his  institute  were 
not  pointed  out  without  a  certain  amount  of  spiteful  exag- 
geration. 

The  report  of  Father  Girard  spread  joy  in  the  camp  of  the 
adversaries  by  supplying  them  with  new  arms ;  their  attacks 
became  sharper,  more  animated,  more  unjust  than  ever, 
especially  in  a  Gottingen  paper,  in  which  Professor  Heller 
described  the  institute  of  Yverdun  as  a  nest  of  revolution- 
aries, and  in  the  Zurich  Popular  Gazette,  in  which  an  eccle- 
siastic, named  Brerni,  attacked  Pestalozzi's  work  in  an  article 
entitled :  Three  Dozen  Questions. 

The  old  man,  deeply  hurt  by  this  last  blow,  said  in  an 
answer  to  Bremi : 

"  It  distresses  me,  I  confess,  to  see  my  establishment  and 
my  friends  calumniated  in  my  native  town  more  than  in  any 
other  place.  I  am  pained  that  it  should  be  within  its  walls 
that  the  very  things  that  are  most  captious  and  most  danger- 
ous to  me  and  my  work  should  be  written,  and  that  people 
should  print  the  most  bitter  attack  of  all,  and  the  one 
most  calculated  to  ruin  my  establishment  and  my  under- 
taking." 

From  this  time  an  angry,  bitter,  and  interminable  polemic 
was  carried  on  between  the  institute  and  its  traducers.  It 
was  generally  Niederer  who  answered  the  attacks,  though 
often  in  Pestalozzi's  name.  This  paper  war  was  thence- 
forth the  great  preoccupation  of  the  inhabitants  of  the  Castle, 


DECLINE   OF  THE  INSTITUTE.  287 

who  worked  harder  to  restore  the  reputation  of  the  insti- 
tute without  than  to  deserve  it  within. 

There  was  certainly  room  for  many  improvements,  but  none 
were  attempted.  However,  as  we  have  seen,  the  first  cause 
of  the  evil  was  in  the  very  nature  of  things.  Pestalozzi's 
method  had  nothing  whatever  in  common  with  the  teaching 
of  the  ordinary  public  establishments.  This  absence  of  any 
harmony  between  the  instruction  given  at  the  institute  and 
that  of  the  public  schools  had  already  struck  the  examiners ; 
such  harmony  could  only  have  been  restored  by  modifying 
the  method  itself,  but  this  neither  Pestalozzi  nor  his  fellow- 
workers  were  at  all  inclined  to  do. 

Schmidt  alone  would  have  been  disposed  to  do  so,  because 
he  set  more  price  on  the  success  of  the  institute  than  on 
maintaining  the  spirit  in  which  it  had  been  founded.  This 
divergence  of  views  added  intestine  war  to  that  which  the 
institute  was  carrying  on  against  its  outside  foes,  and  the  old 
antagonism  between  Niederer  and  Schmidt  broke  out  again 
more  violently  than  ever. 

Before  the  publication  of  Father  Girard's  report,  and  in 
anticipation  of  what  it  would  be,  Schmidt,  at  a  general  meet- 
ing of  the  masters,  had  already  asked  for  certain  reforms, 
which,  however,  had  been  refused.  Now,  as  it  seemed  im- 
possible to  come  to  an  understanding,  and  as  Niederer's 
opinion  again  prevailed,  Schmidt  was  obliged  to  leave  the 
institute.  He  did  so  in  July,  1810,  with  some  of  his  adherents. 
It  was  on  this  occasion  that  Pestalozzi  exclaimed  : 

"  If  I  were  but  twenty  years  younger,  I  would  leave  too, 
and  go  and  find  something  that  I  could  do,  and  set  to  work 
to  do  it ;  but  I  have  made  too  many  fresh  beginnings  already 
to  have  any  strength  left  for  more  !  " 

The  Chancellor  von  Beyme,  who  about  this  time  was  sent 
to  visit  the  establishment  at  Yverdun  by  the  King  of  Prussia, 
said  on  taking  his  leave  : 

"If  I  were  to  hear  to-morrow  that  the  institute  was 
closed,  I  should  really  be  less  astonished  than  if  it  were  to 
last  another  year." 

Such  was  the  state  of  Pestalozzi's  establishment  in  1810, 
yet  pupils  and  visitors  continued  to  arrive,  and  new 


288         PESTALOZZI:    HIS  LIFE  AND    WORK. 

masters,  amongst  whom  were  a  few  remarkably  able  men, 
came  and  gave  lessons.  At  the  same  time  the  teaching  was 
extended  to  several  subjects  which  were  either  quite  new  or 
had  been  comparatively  neglected,  such  as  chemistry,  Latin, 
and  Greek. 

We  must  now  return  to  Pestalozzi's  discourses,  which  tell 
us  from  year  to  year  of  the  state  of  his  feelings  and  the 
progress  of  his  thought.  On  the  1st  of  January,  1809,  his 
mind  is  at  peace  again.  He  thanks  God  who  has  come  to 
his  rescue  and  saved  his  work  from  the  dangers  which  had 
beset  it,  and  humbly  acknowledges  that  the  favour  was  more 
than  he  deserved.  Then,  after  thanking  God,  he  thanks  his 
fellow-workers  for  their  share  in  this  good  result,  and  con- 
tinues thus : 

"  Almighty  Father,  who  leadest  us,  complete  the  miracles 
of  Thy  grace  towards  me !  Keep  my  friends  true  to  me  till 
my  dying  day.  Preserve  the  bond  which  joins  us  until  the 
work  with  which  Thou  hast  filled  my  heart,  and  which,  till 
now,  Thy  grace  has  preserved,  be  accomplished.  0  God,  my 
Creator,  let  me  preserve  the  only  strength  Thou  hast  given 
me — the  power  of  love !  Let  me  not  forget  for  a  single  mo- 
ment all  that  I  owe  Thee,  and  all  that  I  owe  to  the  friends 
around  me.  Renew  my  love  for  Thee.  Renew  my  love  for 
these  children  in  whom  I  place  my  hopes,  and  in  whom  I 
shall  find  the  consolation  of  my  life,  which  can  have  no  other 
value  than  that  which  is  given  by  them. 

"  I  now  turn  to  you,  boys  and  girls,  my  own  dear  children 
What  shall  I  say  to  you  out  of  the  fulness  of  my  heart 
at  this  solemn  hour,  this  beginning  of  a  new  year  ?  I  would 
fain  press  you  all  to  my  heart  with  tears  of  joy,  whilst 
giving  praises  to  our  Father  in  heaven  for  permitting  me  to 
be  a  father  to  you.  I  would  fain  fall  upon  my  knees  and  say 
to  nay  Father  in  heaven  :  Lord,  behold  me,  with  the  children 
Thou  hast  given  me.  Forgive  me,  for  I  am  far  from  being 
what  I  ought  to  have  been  for  these  dear  chilren  ;  forgive 
me,  for  I  have  not  been  their  father  as  I  ought  to  have  been. 
I  would  fain  fall  upon  my  knees  and  say  to  Him:  Lord,  the 
burden  Thou  hast  cast  upon  my  shoulders  is  too  heavy  for 
me ;  Thou  who  hast  given  it  to  me,  help  me  to  bear  it,  and 
give  \is,  whom  Thou  hast  called  to  watch  over  these  children, 
Thy  Holy  Spirit,  Thy  Spirit  of  love  and  wisdom,  the  Spirit 


DECLINE   OF   THE  INSTITUTE.  289 

of  Jesus  Christ,  so  that,  fortified  by  Thy  strength,  we  may 
holily  complete  the  work  which  Thou  hast  given  us  to  per- 
form, and  by  our  love,  and  faith  in  Thy  love,  lead  our  chil- 
dren to  be  indeed  Thine  own.  . 

"  We  simplify  the  means  of  the  development  of  the  facul- 
ties, and  we  stimulate  this  development  with  nothing  but 
the  holy  force  of  love.  My  children,  let  this  love  increase 
and  take  root  in  you ;  that  is  all  we  ask. 

"  Teaching  in  itself  does  not  produce  love  any  more  than 
it  produces  hatred.  And  thus  the  centre  and  essential 
principle  of  education  is  not  teaching  but  love,  which  alone 
is  an  eternal  emanation  of  the  divinity  within  us." 

The  discourse  of  the  1st  of  January,  1810,  is  an  urgent 
appeal  for  the  revival  of  a  life  of  faith,  love,  concord,  self- 
sacrifice,  and  effort. 

The  examination  of  the  Federal  Commission  had  just  taken 
place,  and  Pestalozzi,  although  believing  his  institute 
wrongly  judged,  appears  to  feel  that  it  is  susceptible  of 
improvement.  He  is  anxious  that  this  improvement  shall 
begin  with  the  new  year,  and  last  throughout  its  whole 
course.  He  begs  that  there  may  be  an  end  to  illusions, 
vanity,  weakness,  and  negligence.  He  first  addresses  his 
pupils  according  to  their  ages,  then  the  young  men  who 
are  studying  his  method  for  the  purpose  of  introducing  it 
into  their  own  country,  and  then  his  old  collaborators  and 
friends;  finally  he  examines  himself,  and  reviews  his  past 
life,  thanking -God  for  all  he  has  received  from  Him  in  spite 
of  his  unworthiness,  and  asking  for  help  to  become  better 
than  he  has  hitherto  been. 

We  are  sorry  that  this  discourse  is  too  long  to  be  given 
in  full .  A  few  qviotations,  however,  will  serve  to  show  the 
spirit  which  animated  Pestalozzi  at  this  time,  though  our 
translation  may  rob  his  words  of  much  of  their  force  and 
touching  originality: 

"  Little  children,  whom  we  love  as  Jacob  loved  Joseph 
and  Benjamin,  what  are  we  to  wish  you  for  this  new  year? 
A  life  of  innocence  and  love.  Be  then  always  joyful !  En- 
joy the  beauties  of  Nature  !  When  the  beautiful  butterfly 
flutters  over  your  heads,  when  the  caterpillar  crawls  at  your 
feet,  when  the  stone  glitters  before  your  eyes,  when  the 


290         PESTALOZZI:    HIS  LIFE  AND    WORK. 

flower  expands  in  your  sight,  make  them  your  own,  and 
treasure  them,  and  be  happy  that  God  has  made  Nature 
so  lovely,  and  that  you  are  capable  of  understanding  and 
enjoying  it.  But  then  think  of  your  fathers  and  mothers, 
who,  in  their  love  for  you,  have  given  you  liberty,  the  better 
to  seciire  your  happiness.  Think  of  your  fathers  and 
mothers,  who  often  perhaps  shed  a  silent  tear  because  you 
are  no  longer  near  them,  because  they  can  no  longer  em- 
brace you  every,  day.  I  would  that  tears  should  sometimes 
fill  your  own  eyes  because  you  are  no  longer  able  to  see 
them  at  all  times.  To-day,  with  tears  in  your  eyes  and 
with  hearts  full  of  love  and  gratitude,  wish  them  a  happy 
year,  and  pray  to  your  Father  in  heaven,  who  is  also  their 
Father,  that  He  will  bless  them,  and  by  making  you  pious 
and  good,  bring  them  consolation  and  happiness.  .  .  . 

"  I  now  address  you,  young  men,  who  are  already  masters 
and  fellow-workers  with  us.  What  should  this  new  year 
bring  you  ?  Be  as  simple  as  little  children,  and  walk  ever 
in  the  way  of  love  and  truth.  May  you  increase  in  strength, 
virtue,  and  dignity  ;  may  you  be  united  to  help  on  the  work 
which  has  formed  you !  Turn  your  eyes  with  faith  to  Him 
who  begins  and  ends  all  that  is  good  on  earth.  May  you 
recognize  the  magnitude  of  the  work  with  awe,  and  may  your 
hearts  be  far  from  pride,  foolish  presumption,  or  the  puerile 
thought  that  you  have  already  climbed  mountains  !  Oh, 
no,  no  !  we  are  all  still  at  the  foot  of  the  mountain  ;  we  are 
far,  very  far,  from  the  summit  we  are  anxious  to  reach.  I 
shall  not  see  it :  the  cold  tomb  will  have  covered  me  long 
before  we  are  near.  When  I  close  my  eyes,  my  last  word 
to  you  will  be  :  Do  not  deceive  yourselves  as  to  the  height 
of  the  mountains  you  have  to  climb.  They  are  higher,  much 
higher,  than  they  appear.  When  you  have  climbed  one,  you 
will  but  find  yourselves  at  the  foot  of  the  next,  and  should 
you  have  mistaken  the  way  and  wish  to  stop  and  rest  your- 
selves on  the  first  height,  your  feet  will  become  weak,  and 
you  will  never  see,  any  more  than  I  have  done,  the  true 
aummit  of  the  mountain.  .  .  . 

"  And  you,  my  friends,  who  helped  me  to  lay  the  first 
foundations  of  this  institute,  and  have  supported  with 
patience  and  love  these  troubled  times — friends  without 
whom  my  work  would  never  have  existed — what  shall  I  say 
to  you  ?  What  is  this  work  ?  Is  it  really  our  work?  No, 


DECLINE   OF  THE  INSTITUTE.  291 

no !  Often,  indeed,  our  fears  vanished,  though  we  saw  a 
sworci  hanging  over  our  heads.  But  often,  too,  our  expecta- 
tions have  been  deceived,  and  our  hopes  destroyed.  As  a 
rivulet  which  rushes  from  the  mountain,  our  work  owes  its 
direction  to  its  own  weight ;  nor  could  we,  who  were  stationed 
at  its  source,  foresee  whither  it  would  flow.  As  the  rivulet 
increased,  it  received  tributaries  of  which  we  knew  nothing, 
and  which,  by  their  united  force,  carried  away  the  waters 
of  our  rivulet  with  their  own.  And  so  our  work  is  controlled 
by  a  higher  power,  a  power  which  is  of  God,  and  which  has 
helped  us  far  beyond  our  expectations,  and  far  beyond  our 
deserts.  .  .  .  Every  one  calls  it  our  work,  but  it  is  the 
work  of  God.  Even  this  year  again  it  requires,  as  it  were, 
a  new  creation.  .  .  .  We  are  in  danger,  we  are  in  great 
danger ;  but  we  believe  in  Him  who  has  so  often  rescued 
the  work  that  was  in  danger  in  our  hands,  we  believe  in 
Him  who  has  so  often  led  His  river  through  rocks  which 
were  impeding  its  progress.  This  year  again  He  will  cause 
it  to  flow  on  towards  its  destination.  .  . 

"  Friends,  brothers,  children !  my  soul  overflows  with 
joy.  The  Lord  has  worked  great  things  in  me.  May  I  be 
more  worthy  of  His  goodness  !  May  I,  in  spite  of  my  weak- 
ness, be  a  father  to  you !  I  both  can  and  will,  so  far,  that  is, 
as  a  man  can  be  the  father  of  his  fellow-creatures.  But 
God  is  the  Father  of  us  all.  May  He  keep  us  all  in  His 
truth,  and  His  love,  and  pour  out  upon  us  during  this  year 
His  most  precious  blessings  !  Amen  !  " 

The  Christmas  discourse  of  1810  speaks  first  of  the  great 
joy  that  all  men  should  feel  in  thinking  of  Jesus  Christ, 
made  man  for  our  redemption,  and  of  ourselves,  pardoned, 
sanctified,  united  through  love,  in  communion  with  God 
and  the  Saviour  for  eternity.  It  is  a  joy  which  is  celestial 
and  Divine,  which  surpasses  all  other  joys  on  earth,  and 
which  is  for  all  men  and  for  all  times.  But  to  partake  of 
this  joy  our  hearts  must  be  full  of  the  Spirit  of  Jesus  Christ, 
and  our  hands  full  of  good  gifts  for  men.  After  having 
developed  these  ideas,  he  applies  them  to  the  work  of  his 
institution  as  follows : 

"  If  we  wish  this  Christmas-day  to  be  a  festival  for  our 
hearts,  let  ITS  make  sure  that  love  is  in  our  midst!  But 


292         PESTALOZZ1 :    HIS  LIFE  AND    WORK. 

love  cannot  exist  apart  from  the  strength  and  Holy  Spirit 
of  Jesus  Christ.  Brothers  and  friends  !  if  we  are  without 
that  strength  and  that  Spirit,  our  house  is  built  upon  the 
sand.  .  .  .  Association  between  men  does  but  corrupt 
instead  of  exalting  them,  if  they  are  not  made  one  by  the 
strength  and  Spirit  of  Jesus  Christ.  .  .  . 

"  To-day  we  can  no  longer  expect  any  happiness  save  that 
which  results  from  our  own  virtue ;  our  virtue  alone  can 
maintain  our  association  and  lead  it  on  in  the  right  direc- 
tion. Friends,  you  are  almost  without  a  leader.-  My  strength 
is  spent ;  I  can  no  longer  set  the  example  of  what  each  and 
all  of  us  must  do  daily,  and  your  task  is  heavy.  .  .  .  May 
this  holy  day  bring  us  a  renewal  of  strength  in  the  service 
of  our  work.  Brothers  and  friends,  let  us  rejoice  at  the 
coming  of  Jesus  Christ,  and  let  us  rejoice  also  at  our  holy 
association  in  a  common  work.  May  oiir  joy  be  the  pure 
effect  of  our  faith  in  Jesus  Christ  and  our  love  for  Him.  .  .  . 

"  Brothers  and  friends  !  I  am  the  weakest  among  you  ; 
but  I  am  prepared  for  every  sacrifice  to  save  the  holy  cause 
which  is  our  common  aim.  Be  ye  so  likewise.  It  is  not  a 
small  matter  to  put  your  hand  to  the  education  of  men,  and 
to  say  to  the  world :  '  Here  we  are,  anxious  and  able  to 
improve  the  education  of  mankind.  .  .  .'  The  world  has 
given  us  its  confidence  ;  it  covered  us  with  laurels  when 
we  had  barely  begun  to  look  for  the  means  of  changing  our 
great  dream  into  a  reality.  I  was  deceived  myself ;  I. 
thought  that  the  road  leading  to  my  end  was  much  shorter 
than  it  really  is.  The  praise  we  received,  the  success  of  some 
few  isolated  experiments,  strengthened  our  error,  and  had 
a  bad  influence  on  our  association  and  our  work.  The  light 
and  superficial  spirit  of  the  day  lauded  us  too  much,  and 
made  praise  of  us  too  much  "a  matter  of  fashion.  But  now 
the  disease  which  has  betrayed  itself  in  our  work  has  changed 
the  nature  of  men's  judgments ;  blame  has  commenced,  and 
I  foresee  that  the  same  light  and  superficial  spirit  will  also 
make  fault-finding  a  matter  of  fashion.  However,  it  is  \vell 
for  us  that  this  hour  is  come  ;  it  is  better  for  us  than  the 
bour  of  vain  glory." 

The  discourse  of  the  1st  of  January,  1811,  is  remarkable 
from  the  fact  that  Pestalozzi  addresses  himself  personally 
to  Niederer  and  Krusi,  and  even  to  Schmidt,  who  is  no 


DECLINE   OF  THE  INSTITUTE.  293 

longer  there.  He  begins  by  a  religious  statement,  of  which 
the  substance  is  :  Life  passes  like  years,  years  like  the  hoivrs 
of  the  day  ;  everything  changes,  everything  is  destroyed. 
God,  and  man  created  in  His  image,  alone  remain  eternal. 

Man  is  only  man,  however,  and  only  immortal  by  virtue 
of  the  Divine  which  is  in  him :  the  love  of  God  and  of  hia 
fellow-men.  When  man  lives  for  this  Divine  inward  essence, 
when  all  his  faculties  and  sentiments  are  quickened  by  the 
love  of  God,  then  he  sees  time  and  years  pass  by  as  a  part 
of  eternity,  for  he  is  already  in  possession  of  life  eternal. 
After  having  developed  these  ideas,  Pestalozzi  first  applies 
them  to  his  institute,  and  then  to  the  work  which  is  being 
accomplished  there,  and  to  all  the  persons  who  are  taking 
part  in  it.  He  exhorts  every  one  to  work  in  the  love  of  God 
and  of  men,  not  for  what  passes  with  the  world,  but  for  the 
Divine  and  unchangeable  part  of  us  which  remains  eternally. 

The  following  passages  from  his  speech  will  show  the 
relations  which  then  existed  between  him  and  his  fellow- 
labourers  : 

"  You,  Niederer,  the  first  of  my  sons,  what  shall  I  say 
to  you  ?  What  shall  I  wish  for  you  ?  How  shall  I  thank 
you.,?  You  fathom  the  lowest  depths  of  truth ;  you  walk 
in  its  labyrinths  as  in  beaten  tracks.  Love  guides  your 
steps,  and,  full  of  courage,  you  throw  down  the  glove  to 
those  who  abandon  the  path  of  truth,  who  seek  only  appear- 
ances, and  make  imposture  their  god.  Friend,  you  are  my 
support ;  my  work  rests  upon  your  heart ;  the  light  of  your 
eyes  is  my  salvation,  although  at  times  my  weakness  shrinks 
from  it.  Be,  Niederer,  the  guiding  star  of  my  house !  May 
peace  dwell  in  your  soul  and  contentment  in  your  mind ! 
And  so  the  fulness  of  your  mind  and  heart  will  exercise  a 
powerful  and  blessed  influence  on  the  work  of  my  weakness. 

"  Krusi !  May  your  goodness  spread  continually !  It  was 
you  who  founded  the  spirit  of  the  establishment  at  the  holj* 
hour  of  its  first  beginnings,  and  you  founded  it  on  holiness 
and  love.  In  the  midst  of  children  you  have  always  your- 
self been  as  a  child.  By  your  side,  under  the  influence  of 
your  power  and  love,  the  children  of  our  institute,  even  in 
the  first  days  of  their  arrival,  miss  neither  father  nor  mother. 
You  have  satisfactorily  answered  the  question :  Can  the 
teacher  supply  the  place  of  father  and  mother  ?  .  .  . 


294         PESTALOZZI:    HIS  LIFE  AND    WORK. 

"You  have  laboured  with  Niederer  as  with  a  brother; 
you  have  Lad  but  one  heart;  each  day  strengthened  the 
union  between  you.  Promise  me,  with  hand  in  hand,  to 
remain  united  !  You  are  the  first  and  oldest  of  my  helpers, 
the  only  ones  that  have  remained  faithful.  I  do  not  always 
agree  with  you  in  everything,  but  my  soul  is  attached  to 
you ;  without  your  united  strength  to  support  it,  my  estab- 
lishment would  no  longer  be  the  same,  and  its  ruin  would 
be  speedy.  .  .  . 

"  Dear  friends !  you  have  all  been  my  consolation  in  my 
dajrs  of  sadness.  When  I  lost  the  heart  of  the  man  whom 
my  soul  loved  as  a  father  loves  the  soul  of  his  child,  when 
I  was  afflicted  as  with  the  loss  of  my  right  hand,  when  I 
thought  I  had  no  more  strength  for  the  work  of  my  life,  then 
you  showed  me  that  you  believed  in  me,  and  you  strengthened 
my  belief  in  myself.  I  now  thank  you,  for  it  is  owing  to 
many  of  you  that  I  was  enabled  to  surmount  that  hour  of 
weakness.  .  .  . 

"  And  I  owe  you  gratitude,  too,  Schmidt,  as  does  also  my 
work.  Fellow-workers,  a  large  part  of  his  marvellous  power 
has  passed  into  your  hands,  and  it  is  you  who  continue  to 
support  the  institute.  Schmidt !  my  gratitude  and  love 
must  never  lessen.  You  have  done  me  much  good.  My 
trust  in  your  strength  made  me  well-nigh  forget  the  estab- 
lishment, myself,  and  my  one  sacred  aim.  Now  I  shall  no 
longer  forget  either  house,  self,  or  aim ;  but  neither  shall  I 
forget  you.  You  have  done  me  good  by  your  love,  which 
made  me  happy,  and  by  your  departure,  which  made  me  sad. 
Schmidt,  the  least  that  I  owe  you  is  to  respect  your  views, 
and  gratefully  endeavour  to  carry  them  out.  They  are  in 
so  many  points  similar  to  mine !  How  can  I  help  respecting 
them  ?  How  can  I  turn  aside  from  them  ?  No,  I  will  be 
true  toy  ou  as  to  myself.  No  one  understands  you  better 
than  I,  no  one  will  do  you  more  justice.  May  God  grant 
you  days  of  peaceful  maturity,  love  and  consideration  for 
the  lowly,  and  faith  in  God,  whose  strength  is  made  mani- 
fest in  the  weak.  It  seems  as  though  I  must  go  in  search 
of  you,  crying  aloud  to  you  to  say  where  you  are,  so  great 
is  my  longing  to-day  to  see  you  as  one  of  my  own. 

"  Blessed  hour !  raise  us  above  all  that  is  terrestrial,  all 
that  is  transitory !  Father  in  heaven !  lift  us  in  every 
circumstance  of  our  lives  to  that  which  is  eternal  and 


DECLINE   OF  THE  INSTITUTE.  295 

unchangeable,  which  we  find  but  in  Thee  alone,  and  which 
we  cannot  reach  save  by  living  in  Thee." 

Thus  Pestalozzi  began  the  year  1811,  which  was  still 
further  to  increase  the  apparent  external  prosperity  of  the 
institute,  but  without  retarding  the  progress  of  its  internal 
decay. 

Polemics  occupied  most  of  the  time  and  strength  of 
Niederer ;  in  answer  to  certain  violent  attacks,  he  had  just 
published  a  pamphlet,  entitled,  Pestalozzi's  Educational 
Establishment  Considered  in  its  Relations  to  the  Needs  of 
our  Time.  Pestalozzi  refers  to  this  pamphlet  in  a  letter  to 
Knusert,  of  the  canton  of  Appenzell,  who  had  been  one  of  his 
pupils  in  1801,  one  of  his  assistant  masters  in  1805,  and  who 
in  1807  had  entered  the  French  army  as  lieutenant,  and  was 
now,  after  serving  in  the  Spanish  war,  at  Barcelona.  The 
letter  is  as  follows : 

"  Yverdun,  April,  1811. 
"  My  dear  Switzer ! 

"  When  you  return,  you  will  find  many  changes.  The 
principal  work  continues  to  progress  in  a  most  satisfactory 
manner,  but,  like  you  in  Spain,  we  have  guerillas  about  us 
who  are  ever  on  the  look  out  to  strike  us  on  our  weak  side. 
Some  even  slip  in  under  our  roof,  and  will  eat  and  drink 
with  us  so  long  as  we  ask  them  to  stay.  There  are  also 
mighty  lords  of  the  Junta,  who  have  not  been  satisfied  merely 
to  spy  out  our  weaknesses,  bnt  who  have  taken  their  part 
in  the  firing  at  us.  Fortunately,  many  of  our  enemies  are 
bad  marksmen ;  but  their  shooting,  though  wide  of  the  mark, 
makes  a  great  noise.  Most  of  these  shots  are  directed 
against  the  general  of  our  engineers,  your  countryman ;  not 
he  of  Gais,  but  he  of  Wolfhalden.1  But  the  general  is  a 
deuce  of  a  fellow,  who,  whilst  the  enemy  are  firing  at  him 
from  all  sides,  continues  to  cast  cannon  of  the  heaviest 
calibre,  with  gun-carriages  that,  like  the  tower  of  Babel, 
reach  nearly  to  the  skies.  You  will  think  I  am  speaking  a 
strange  language  ;  but  our  circumstances  are  so  peculiar  that, 
as  schoolmasters,  we  cannot  express  all  we  feel  any  more 
than  you,  in  your  position,  can  always  say  what  you  would. 

1  i.e..  not  Krusi,  but  Niederer. 


296         PESTALOZZI:    HIS  LIFE  AND    WORK. 

"  I  am  very  well  in  health,  thank  God ;  and  yet  my  strength 
is  failing  me.  The  good  old  times  are  gone  by.  I  have  an 
inexpressible  longing  for  rest,  even  though  it  should  be  in 
the  grave. 

"  Take  care  of  yourself,  my  dear  Knusert,  and  let  us  hear 
from  you  soon. 

"  Your  friend,  PESTALOZZI." 

Since  the  installation  of  the  institute  at  Yverdun  there 
had  been  numerous  and  important  changes  in  the  teaching 
body. 

Pestalozzi  had  lost  many  of  the  best  of  his  former  helpers: 
Tobler,  Buss,  Knusert,  then  Steiner,  Muralt,  Mieg,  and  Hoff- 
mann. Most  of  these  left  him  to  make  the  principles  of  his 
method  more  widely  known.  Later  on  Schmidt  had  left, 
harbouring  a  bitter  feeling  of  resentment  against  his 
colleagues,  who  would  neither  adopt  his  ideas,  nor  submit 
to  his  overbearing  manner ;  on  leaving,  he  had  gone  to 
Vienna,  where  he  published  a  pamphlet  against  the  institute, 
calling  it  "  a  disgrace  to  humanity."  The  establishment 
had  also  lost  several  other  masters  of  less  note. 

Those  who  had  left  had  been  gradually  replaced  by  a 
much  larger  number  of  teachers,  many  of  whom  were  men 
of  far  higher  attainments  than  their  predecessors.  Amongst 
the  most  distinguished  were  : 

Ramsauer,  whom  we  know  already,  and  who  had  become 
an  excellent  master  in  arithmetic,  elementary  geometry,  and 
especially  drawing. 

Goldi,  from  canton  Saint  Gallen,  who,  first  a  pupil  of  Pesta- 
lozzi,  then  an  assistant-master,  was  zealous  and  earnest  in 
his  work,  and  taught  mathematics  with  clearness  and 
success ;  he  had  quite  mastered  the  spirit  of  the  method, 
and  never  gave  it  up.  Later  on,  he  became  professor  of 
mathematics  and  physics  at  the  College  of  Saint  Gallen ;  he 
also  published  a  treatise  on  geometry. 

Weilenmann,  of  Eglisau,  canton  Zurich,  was  a  tall,  strong 
man,  but  had  lost  one  arm.  He  took  charge  of  the  ele- 
mentary class,  which  was  very  numerous  ;  and  with  his  one 
hand,  which  often  shook  with  fatigue,  he  set  copies,  ruled 
copy-books,  and  made  and  mended  pens  for  all  the  children, 
He  was  everywhere  and  always  with  his  pupils,  not  only  in 
their  games  and  walks,  but  in  the  dormitories,  where  he 


DECLINE  OF  THE  INSTITUTE.  297 

often  sat  up  'part  of  the  night,  and  was  always  the  first 
to  rise.  Everybody  loved  him.  He  attended  to  the  little 
ones  and  to  those  who  were  ailing  like  a  mother ;  in  this 
respect,  indeed,  he  was  like  Krusi.  Those  of  his  old  pupils 
living  to-day  are  still  grateful  for  all  the  trouble  this  excellent 
man  took  for  them. 

Baumgartner  was  a  handsome  young  man  from  canton 
Glarus,  quick  and  intelligent,  but  gentle  and  modest ;  he  had 
a  decided  talent  for  teaching  beginners  mathematics,  know- 
ing how  to  put  things  clearly  and  inspire  a  taste  for  the 
subject.  He  left  Yverdun  to  join  the  institute  founded  by 
Hoffmann  at  Naples,  where  he  died  of  fever  very  shortly 
after. 

Leuenzinger,  of  Glarus,  was  a  short,  thick-set  man,  with 
a  dark  complexion  and  large  head.  His  heavy  body  pre- 
vented him  from  joining  in  the  games  of  the  pupils.  He  had 
a  remarkable  taste  for  mathematics.  His  great  happiness 
was  to  attack  complicated  problems,  after  solving  which  he 
would  walk  about  the  room  rubbing  his  hands  and  talking 
to  himself.  He  was  full  of  rustic  simplicity. 

Amongst  the  masters  who  arrived  after  the  departure  of 
Schmidt,  we  must  mention  : 

Schacht,  of  Brunswick,  of  gentlemanly  bearing,  and  with  a 
good  influence  on  the  character  and  conduct  of  the  scholars. 
He  had  a  fine  face,  sharp  and  full  of  animation,  and  talked 
well.  He  taught  history,  and  captivated  his  hearers  by  his 
dramatic  manner  ;  he  also  lectured  on  chemistry.  He  after- 
wards returned  to  Brunswick,  where  he  became  a  member 
of  the  Council  of  State  and  of  the  superior  Council  of  Educa- 
tion. He  also  published  a  treatise  on  geography,  according 
to  the  principles  of  Pestalozzi. 

Blochmann,  of  Dresden,  no  less  distinguished  by  his  nobility 
of  character  than  by  his  knowledge  and  talent  for  teaching. 
He  came  to  Yverdun  to  know  more  of  Pestalozzi.  He  only 
taught  geography  in  the  institute,  but  his  influence  was  valu- 
able in  many  t/ays,  and  he  was  liked  by  everybody.  After 
leaving  Yverdun  he  established  an  educational  institute  in 
Dresden,  and  became  the  king's  trusted  adviser  in  all  educa- 
tional matters. 

Ackermann,  a  young  Saxon,  full  of  vivacity  and  zeal,  and 
as  eager  to  learn  as  to  teach.  He  taught  gymnastics,  and 
was  the  constant  companion  of  the  children.  He  afterwards 
21 


298         PESTALOZZI:    HIS  LIFE  AND    WORK. 

became  headmaster  of  the  model  school  at  Frankfort-on« 
Main. 

Lehmann  had  a  scholarly  knowledge  of  French  and 
German ;  he  taught  the  two  languages.  His  heart  was 
thoroughly  in  his  work,  but  he  was  a  little  wanting,  perhaps, 
in  the  firmness  and  practical  skill  that  help  to  make  a  good 
master.  Later  on,  he  was  employed  in  the  public  educa- 
tional establishments  at  Berne;  afterwards  he  and  his  wife, 
who  was  a  talented  woman,  established  at  Basle  a  school  for 
girls. 

In  the  summer  of  1811,  a  man  came  to  Yverdun  who  was 
destined  to  exercise  a  large  influence  on  the  state  of  the 
institute  for  some  time.  This  was  Jullien,  of  Paris,  a  Knight 
of  the  Legion  of  Honour,  a  school-inspector,  a  member  of 
several  learned  societies,  and  the  author  of  A  General  Essay 
on  Physical,  Moral,  and  Intellectual  Education,  and  An 
Essay  on  the  Employment  of  Time,  etc. 

Juliien  soon  recognized  the  merit  and  importance  of  the 
practical  educational  reform  that  was  taking  place  before 
his  eyes,  and  he  determined  to  make  a  thorough  study  of 
the  doctrine  of  Pestalozzi  and  its  various  applications. 
Protracting  his  stay  therefore  at  Yverdun,  he  held  continual 
discussions  with  Pestalozzi  and  his  coadjutors,  and  though 
much  hampered  by  his  own  ignorance  of  German  and  the 
bad  French  of  his  interlocutors,  persevered  with  admirable 
patience  until  he  thought  himself  in  possession  of  the 
requisite  knowledge.  The  year  after,  he  published,  in  the 
royal  press  at  Milan,  a  pamphlet  of  some  hundred  pages, 
entitled,  A  Sketch  of  the  Educational  Institute  of  Yverdun^ 
and  two  large  octavo  volumes  on  The  Spirit  of  Pestalozzi's 
Educational  Method. 

By  placing  his  sons  with  Pestalozzi,  and  by  his  own  per- 
sonal influence  and  that  of  his  writings,  Jullien  was  the 
cause  of  a  large  number  of  French  pupils  and  some  few 
French  masters  going  to  Yverdun,  so  that  the  institute  was 
no  longer  so  entirely  German..  We  shall  show,  later  on, 
how  this  affected  the  establishment. 

The  year  1811  seemed  to-  Pestalozxi  to  have  been  a  happier 
one;  his  discourse  of  January  1st,  1812,  therefore,  is  full  of 
joy  and  gratitude.  We  give  the  most  characteristic  portions : 

"  The  year  just  ended  has  been  a  blessed  one  for  ua  ,•  it 


DECLINE   OF  THE  INSTITUTE.  299 

has  brought  me  nearer  the  aim  of  my  life.  What  matters, 
now,  that  it  has  been  a  hard  one  ?  The  hours  of  trouble 
have  passed,  and  there  remains  nothing  but  the  strength 
they  have  developed  in  us.  Dangers  have  disappeared  aa 
completely  as  if  they  had  never  existed  ;  but  the  courage 
they  have  aroused  remain,  and  its  foundations  are  now  more 
solid  than  ever. 

"  What  we  want  to  do,  what  we  have  to  do,  we  can  now 
do  better  than  ever.  The  road  we  have  been  looking  for 
lies  open  before  us.  Peace  reigns  in  our  paths ;  great 
obstacles  have  vanished,  and  we  feel  that  the  strength  and 
means  necessary  for  reaching  our  goal  are  slowly  ripen- 
ing. .  .  . 

"Friends  and  brothers!  Whilst  I  rejoice  at  the  good 
fortune  with  which  we  have  surmounted  all  dangers,  I  also 
look  into  the  past,  and  think  of  all  we  might  have  done  to 
make  ourselves  more  worthy  of  this  blessing,  and  to  enjoy 
it  with  a  purer  and  nobler  satisfaction.  .  .  , 

"  God  has  allowed  our  work  to  remain  in  our  hands.  He 
has  blessed  it  and  strengthened  it ;  but  the  joy  which  we 
feel  cannot  be  pure  and  complete  unless  we  are  conscious 
of  having  worked  with  fidelity,  zeal,  and  a  pure  heart.  .  .  . 

"  With  what  joy  I  thank  God  for  having  kept  us  faithful 
to  the  precious  mission  which  unites  us,  for  having  increased 
your  strength  and  zeal  in  the  pursuit  of  our  aim !  " 

Festal  ozzi  next  addresses  himself  personally  to  his  two 
oldest  collaborators,  Niederer  and  Krusi  ;  to  Weilenmann, 
Heussy,  Baumgartner,  Schneider  and  Leuenberger,  who  have 
already  been  with  him  for  some  years  ;  to  Schacht,  Bloch- 
mann,  Ackermann  and  Lehmann,  who  have  joined  him  more 
recently;  to  the  Prussian  student-teachers,  Kaverau,  Ken- 
ning, Dreist,  Patzig,  Kratz  and  Benschmidt ;  and  lastly,  to 
his  daughter-in-law's  second  husband,  Mr.  Kuster,  the  steward 
and  bursar  of  the  institute.  He  then  continues  : 

"  Friends  and  brothers,  do  not  forget  that  I  am  leaving 
you,  and  that  you  are  to  remain  behind !  What  a  great 
thing  completion  is !  How  glorious  to  approach  the  mark 
where  the  victor  is  crowned.  I  have  not  reached  the  mark, 
and  my  course  is  run.  I  can  no  longer  strive  towards  it ; 
all  I  could  do  I  have  done.  I  see  that  for  me  action  is  at 


300         PESTALOZZI:   HIS  LIFE  AND    WORK. 

an  end,  though  the  work  in  hand  is  not  completed.  Man- 
kind, that  I  have  loved  so  well,  will,  with  grateful  acknow- 
ledgment of  my  efforts,  complete  my  task.  But  it  will  also 
see  in  you,  friends  and  brothers,  the  first  and  worthiest 
labourers  in  this  reform.  You  will  therefore  remain  my 
sons,  and  not  fail  that  posterity  for  which  I  have  lived.  It 
is  this  hope  that  consoles  me,  when  I  see  that  the  work  I 
have  neither  time  nor  strength  to  finish,  rudely  torn  from 
my  hands  by  the  natural  course  of  events,  is  really  mine  no 
longer.  But  it  is  still  in  God's  hands.  0  friends,  be  true, 
and  fail  not  1 " 

In  the  words  which  Pestalozzi  now  addresses  to  his  wife, 
we  find  the  confirmation  of  a  fact  hitherto  unverified, 
namely,  that  the  old  man,  after  neglecting  money  matters 
all  his  life,  nevertheless  took  certain  necessary  precautions 
to  secure  for  his  wife,  and  after  her  for  his  grandchild 
Gottlieb,  a  sum  of  money  representing  the  increased  value 
of  the  Neuhof  estate,  which  was  all  that  remained  of  the 
fortune  she  had  brought  him. 

His  words  were  as  follows  : 

"  I  now  address  myself  to  you,  faithful  companion  of  my 
life  !  Do  not  take  as  indifference  tha  calmness  with  which 
I  regard  my  fate ;  it  is  God  who  gives  it  me.  .  .  .  The 
year  just  gone  first  brought  me  this  peace,  the  present  year 
will  complete  it.  The  past  year  has  also  been  blessed  for 
you,  my  dear  and  noble  wife,  for  your  health  has  been 
restored.  God  permits  you,  then,  to  see  the  end  I  have  so 
nearly  reached ;  joy  shall  still  be  yours,  for  you  have 
deserved  it !  You  have  indeed  suffered  much  for  my  sake 
in  the  times  of  struggle  and  preparation  which  have  been 
so  unduly  prolonged  in  my  life;  you  have  greatly  feared  for 
the  future  of  our  grandson,  compromised  by  my  fault.  But 
God,  who  fashions  our  lives,  has  witnessed  your  agony  ;  His 
Fatherly  hand  has  sent  you  an  unexpected  succour  ;  our  dear 
child  is  saved,  so  that,  in  this  respect  too,  we  may  go  down 
to  the  grave  in  peace.  Our  child  will  be  your  heir.  As  for 
me,  I  shall  die  poor,  as  I  have  always  intended.  To  devote 
myself  and  my  all  to  my  work  has  been,  as  you  know,  my 
only  desire.  But  God  is  good,  dearest !  May  our  faith  in 
Him  remain  unshaken  !  " 


I 
DECLINE   OF  THE  INSTITUTE.  301 

After  this,  Pestalozzi  addresses  himself  first  to  his  own 
children,  then  to  the  young  girls  of  the  neighbouring  insti- 
tute, then  to  the  directress,  Mrs.  Kuster,  and  her  chief 
assistant,  Miss  Rosette  Kasthoffer.  He  speaks  to  them 
all  of  his  gratitude  and  trust,  and  to  all  utters  words  of 
encouragement.  He  finally  concludes  by  invoking  God's 
blessing  upon  everybody,  including  his  absent  friends,  for 
the  year  which  has  just  begun. 

This  year,  1812,  begun  under  such  happy  auspices,  was 
soon  to  bring  Pestalozzi  a  fresh  trial — a  painful,  serious  and 
long  illness. 

One  day,  as  he  was  walking  up  and  down  Mrs.  Krusi's 
room,  preoccupied  and  restless,  as  was  his  wont,  having 
taken  up  a  knitting-needle  to  scratch  his  ear,  he  suddenly 
knocked  against  the  high  earthenware  stove  with  such  force 
that  the  needle  was  driven  into  his  head.  According  to 
the  doctor  who  attended  him,  and  who  was  amazed  beyond 
measure  that  such  an  old  man  should  recover  from  so  severe 
an  accident,  the  needle  must  have  penetrated,  not  the  tym- 
panum, but  the  bony  part  of  the  ear. 

His  recovery,  however,  was  very  slow.  For  a  long  time 
he  was  confined  to  his  bed,  and  suffered  much  pain.  He 
could  not  bear  the  slightest  noise,  and  for  four  months  his 
life  was  despaired  of.  At  times  he  thought  he  was  dying, 
and  seemed  glad ;  at  other  times  he  would  say,  "  I  should 
like  to  live  a  little  longer,  for  I  have  still  much  to  do."  His 
convalescence  was  long  and  painful.  But  the  old  man  could 
not  give  up  work,  and  even  in  the  midst  of  his  sufferings, 
and  when  parched  by  fever,  he  continued  to  dictate  to  one 
of  his  assistants,  for  he  never  ceased  to  occupy  himself  with 
the  elaboration  of  his  "  method."  When  he  was  well  enough 
to  be  placed  on  a  sofa,  he  began  to  write  a  little  himself ; 
he  also  put  into  execution  a  project  which  had  occupied  his 
mind  for  some  time  past. 

He  considered  the  best  means  of  teaching  a  foreign  lan- 
guage to  be  that  which  Nature  employs  in  teaching  a  child 
to  speak  its  mother-tongue,  that  is  to  say,  constant  prac- 
tice in  the  spoken  language.  It  was  thus  that,  with  the 
addition  of  a  little  grammar,  the  Germans  at  Yverdun 
learned  French,  and  the  French  German,  with  complete 
success.  Pestalozzi  thereupon  asked  himself  if  it  would 
not  be  possible  to  employ  similar  means  to  teach  a  dead 


302          PESTALOZZI:    HIS  LIFE  AND    WORK. 

language,  and  he  resolved  to  try  the  experiment.  Every  day 
some  six  or  seven  children  who  had  not  yet  begun  Latin, 
amongst  them  the  writer  of  these  lines,  were  brought  to  his 
couch. 

Pestalozzi  had  with  much  care  selected  from  Caesar's 
Commentaries  a  number  of  short  passages  and  isolated 
phrases,  all  bearing  on  the  same  subject,  and  nearly  all 
containing  the  same  words ;  with  these  selections  he  had, 
in  his  illegible  hand,  filled  several  sheets.  As  we  stood  by 
the  couch,  where  he  lay  weak  and  suffering,  he  would  give 
us  a  phrase,  which  we  all  had  to  repeat  until  we  knew  it  by 
heart ;  he  would  then  explain  the  different  words,  and  point 
out  some  of  the  changes  they  undergo  when  it  is  required 
to  modify  the  sense  of  the  sentence.  In  this  way  the  study 
of  syntax  and  accidence  went  hand  in  hand.  We  were 
soon  able  to  make  certain  changes  for  ourselves,  and  con- 
struct sentences  of  such  elements  as  were  known  to  us ; 
that  is  to  say,  with  a  very  limited  vocabulary,  and  a  very 
narrow  range  of  subjects,  we  spoke  Latin  like  Csesar ! 

These  lessons  were  continued  during  the  whole  period  of 
the  old  man's  convalescence,  but  after  that  they  were  dropped. 
We  have  never  been  able  to  ascertain  whether  Pestalozzi 
gave  them  up  because  he  was  not  satisfied  with  the  success 
of  the  experiment,  or  merely  because  he  was  carried  away 
by  new  ideas. 

At  the  beginning  of  1813,  Niederer  married  Miss  Kast- 
hoffer,  and  Pestalozzi  made  over  to  them  the  girls'  school, 
which  had  been  originally  established  in  a  large  house  near 
the  Castle,  where  it  remained  for  the  next  twenty-five  years. 
Mrs.  Kuster  thus  saw  herself  supplanted  by  her  head- 
assistant,  to  whom  she  resigned  her  position  without  the 
least  complaint.  The  establishment  certainly  profited  by 
the  change,  and,  owing  to  the  unusual  capacity  of  Mrs. 
Niederer,  enjoyed  a  very  long  period  of  prosperity. 

The  finances  of  the  institute  were  at  this  time  in  a  very 
unsatisfactory  condition.  Since  1810  the  number  of  the 
pupils  had  been  falling  off,  but  that  of  the  masters  steadily 
increasing.  Young  men  came  from  far  and  near  to  learn 
the  method,  and  on  the  understanding  that  they  would 
afterwards  do  their  best  to  spread  it,  were  admitted  by 
Pestalozzi  for  nothing.  The  old  man's  credulity  in  this 
respect  was  unbounded.  He  refused  nobody,  and  received 


DECLINE  OF  THE  INSTITUTE.  303 

all  sorts  of  unfit  persons  into  the  institute,  sometimes  even 
deliberately  dishonest  people,  who,  after  staying  a  few 
months,  made  off,  leaving  debts  behind  them  which  Pesta- 
lozzi  felt  it  his  duty  to  pay.  The  mode  of  life  was  simple, 
it  is  true,  and  the  faithful  Lisbeth  Krusi  did  her  best  as 
housekeeper ;  but  in  her  desire  that  there  should  be  no 
stint,  she  fell  into  the  opposite  extreme,  with  the  result 
that  there  was  much  waste.  The  printing  press,  too,  cost 
a  great  deal  of  money,  especially  now  that  the  polemical 
publications  were  so  frequent.  'The  effect  of  all  this  was 
already  making  itself  felt,  as  we  have  said,  though  the  final 
financial  disaster  did  not  come  till  afterwards. 

After  the  departure  of  Schmidt,  Ramsauer  became  Pesta- 
lozzi's  favourite,  and  did  for  the  practical  application  of  the 
''  method  "  very  much  what  Niederer  did  for  the  theory.  It 
is  to  be  regretted  that  at  this  time  Ramsauer  could  not,  or 
would  not,  take  in  hand  the  administration  of  the  finances 
of  the  establishment ;  had  he  done  so,  he  might  perhaps 
have  saved  the  institute.  But  he  confined  his  activity  to 
his  relations  with  the  pupils,  and  to  the  improvement  of  the 
system  of  instruction  in  the  elementary  branches. 

Mechanical  and  perspective  drawing,  in  which  he  excelled, 
were  his  favourite  subjects ;  it  is  to  him  that  we  owe  the 
rational  and  graduated  course  which  made  it  possible  to 
introduce  that  particular  branch  of  teaching  into  the  primary 
schools.  Very  often  foreigners,  who  were  passing  through 
the  country,  would  beg  for  a  collection  of  his  models  to  take 
home  to  their  respective  countries,  and  thus  his  practical 
method  spread  in  all  directions.  It  was  almost  the  same 
collection  as  that  afterwards  published  in  Paris  by  Boniface 
and  Rivail. 

Ramsauer'a  own  account  of  his  relations  with  Pestalozzi 
is  as  follows : 

"  It  was  not  at  all  rare  in  summer  to  see  foreigners  at  the 
Castle  four  or  five  times  a  day,  who  interrupted  our  lessons, 
and  expected  us  to  explain  our  method.  During  the  years 
1812,  1813,  and  1814,  in  addition  to  my  ordinary  occupa- 
tions, I  so  often  had  to  give  the  necessary  explanations  in 
a  very  loud  voice,  that  my  chest  suffered.  When,  at  last, 
I  was  quite  ill,  Pestalozzi  reproached  himself  with  being  the 
cause ;  he  knew  he  had  worked  me  too  much,  and  waa 


304         PESTALOZZ1:    HIS  LIFE  AND    WORK. 

anxious  to  nurse  me  himself,  as  a  father  would  nurse  his 
child.  But  he  was  more  incapable  and  awkward  than  I 
could  have  believed  possible  if  I  had  not  seen  him. 

"  The  hardest  time  I  spent  with  Pestalozzi  was  from  1812 
to  1815,  when  I  so  often  had  to  write  in  his  room  from  two 
to  six  in  the  morning.  Even  when  I  retired  to  bed  as  late 
as  eleven  or  twelve,  I  was  expected  to  be  at  his  bedside  by 
two.  If  I  was  a  few  minutes  late,  he  would  impatiently 
jump  out  of  bed,  both  winter  and  summer,  and  with  very 
little  clothing  on,  cross  the  courtyard,  and,  going  through 
the  boys'  dormitories,  call  me  in  a  way  that  was  not  always 
polite.  But  when  I  was  punctual,  or  even  when  I  made  my 
appearance  after  being  called,  he  would  express  his  approval 
by  embracing  me,  and  then  get  back  into  bed  and  begin  his 
dictation.  But  it  was  very  difficult  to  write  down  what  he 
said,  for  he  not  only  spoke  very  indistinctly  (he  always  had 
the  end  of  the  sheet  in  his  mouth),  but  generally  changed 
the  form  of  his  sentences  two  or  three  times.  .  .  .  When 
Pestalozzi  was  talking,  people  were  often  obliged  to  guess 
at  what  he  meant  from  the  expression  of  his  face,  his  speech 
being  so  much  slower  than  his  thought.  In  the  same  way 
his  secretary  often  had  to  guess  at  his  words  from  the  tone 
of  his  voice.  My  task  then,  if  interesting,  was  difficult, 
and  I  sometimes  felt  a  certain  pity  for  the  old  man,  though 
without  losing  any  of  my  love  and  respect.  .  .  . 

"  During  the  years  1812,  1813,  and  1814,  the  period  when 
Pestalozzi's  friendliness  and  confidence  in  me  were  most 
marked,  he  used  to  send  for  me  every  day  after  dinner  to  take 
coffee  or  liqueur  in  Mrs.  Pestalozzi's  room,  or  in  that  of  his 
faithful  housekeeper,  Mrs.  Krusi.  On  those  occasions  he 
was  generally  very  gay  and  full  of  wit ;  and  his  wit  was 
often  brilliant,  for  whatever  he  did,  he  did  thoroughly, 
giving  himself  up  entirely  to  the  feelings  of  the  moment. 
In  the  same  half-hour  he  would  be  extremely  happy  and 
extremely  miserable,  gentle  and  caressing  or  serious  and 
severe  ;  he  did  nothing  without  enthusiasm.  .  .  . 

"  But,  happily  or  unhappily,  he  soon  forgot ;  and  so  there 
is  little  sequence  in  the  history  of  his  life.  Nor  did  he 
profit  much  by  his  experiences.  Even  in  our  study  of  peda- 
gogics, he  would  not  allow  us  to  make  use  of  the  experience 
of  other  times  or  other  countries ;  we  were  to  read  nothing, 
but  discover  everything  for  ourselves.  Hence  the  whole 


DECLINE  OF  THE  INSTITUTE.  305 

strength  of  the  institute  was  always  devoted  to  experiment. 
The  fact  remains,  however,  that  whatever  we  learned  in  that 
way,  with  so  much  trouble  and  toil,  we  learned  well,  and 
the  trouble  was  soon  forgotten  in  the  pleasure  and  confidence 
that  resulted  from  such  well-grounded  knowledge. 

"  Often  when  the  masters  had  done  something  to  displease 
him,  Pestalozzi  would  fly  into  a  passion,  and  angrily  leave 
the  room,  slamming  the  door  as  if  he  would  break  it.  But 
if  at  that  moment  he  happened  to  meet  a  young  pupil,  he 
would  instantly  grow  calm,  and,  after  kissing  the  boy,  return 
to  the  room,  exclaiming,  '  I  beg  your  pardon  !  Forgive  my 
violence  !  I  was  mad.'  "  * 

We  must  here  say  a  word  about  the  letter  to  Mr.  Delbruck, 
which  Pestalozzi  published  towards  the  end  of  April,  1813. 
Mr.  Delbruck,  who  was  tutor  to  the  Prince  Royal  of  Prussia, 
had  been  sent  by  the  king  to  Yverdun,  and  had  spent  some 
considerable  time  in  the  institute,  studying  the  work  and 
doctrine  of  the  master,  whom  he  soon  learned  to  love  and 
admire.  After  his  return  to  Berlin,  he  had  written  to  Pesta- 
lozzi advising  him  to  abandon  polemics,  and  leave  all  the 
attacks  on  the  institute  unanswered. 

Pestalozzi,  in  a  long  letter,  endeavours  to  show  that  an 
educational  institute  cannot  be  silent  when  it  is  accused  of 
corrupting  youth  both  in  religion  and  politics ;  he  also  tries 
to  excuse  Niederer,  who  had  been  blamed  for  the  violence 
of  his  language.  He  then  continues,  with  characteristic  out- 
spokenness : 

"  The  remembrance  of  the  past  weighs  heavy  on  my  heart ; 
my  explanations  do  not  satisfy  me.  I  almost  hate  my  own 
words  as  I  write  them.  When  a  man  is  struggling  with 
people  with  no  nobleness  of  heart,  he  is  almost  sure  to  lose 
some  of  the  nobleness  of  his  own  heart.  This  is  a  very  sad 
thought  to  me.  I  would  give  up  some  of  the  days  I  have 
still  to  live  to  blot  out  this  portion  of  my  life." 

The  end  of  this  letter  shows  that  the  old  man  has  again 
relapsed  into  the  illusions  which  he  himself  had  once  recog- 
nized as  such.  He  thinks  that  by  the  unceasing  labour  of 
himself  and  his  coadjutors,  the  institute  will  soon  be  in  such 

1  A  Short.  Sketch  of  my  Pedagogical  Life,  by  J.  Ramsauer.  Olden 
burg,  1838. 


306         PESTALOZZ1:    HIS  LIFE  AND    WORK. 

a  state  that  the  application  of  his  method  to  all  branches  of 
instruction  will  at  last  be  possible. 

It  was  this  same  year,  1813,  that  witnessed  all  the 
consequences  of  Napoleon  the  First's  disastrous  Russian 
campaign. 

The  Germans,  seeing  a  favourable  opportunity  for  deliver- 
ing their  country  from  the  foreign  power  that  had  heaped 
so  many  misfortunes  and  humiliations  upon  them,  eagerly 
prepared  to  fight.  It  was  impossible  that  the  young  men 
of  German  origin  who  were  with  Pestalozzi  at  this  time 
should  remain  untouched  by  this  enthusiasm,  and  numbers 
of  them  went  and  took  up  arms  "  for  the  deliverance  of 
Germany."  The  Prussian  pupils,  who  had  indeed  just  com- 
pleted their  studies,  all  went  away  too,  some  of  the  masters, 
amongst  whom  were  Schacht  and  Ackermann,  following  their 
example. 

Pestalozzi  entirely  commended  them,  and  made  no  effort 
to  restrain  them ;  they  had  indeed  his  best  wishes  for  the 
success  of  their  patriotic  enterprise.  He  considered  that 
the  enormous  power  Napoleon  exercised  in  Europe  was  an 
obstacle  to  that  part  of  his  work  which  consisted  in  raising 
the  people  by  education.  We  have  seen  that  in  1803  Bona- 
parte had  refused  to  listen  to  Pestalozzi,  and  rejected  his 
proposals,  saying  that  he  could  not  mix  himself  up  with 
questions  of  ABC;  afterwards,  however,  he  saw  that  the 
work  of  the  Swiss  philanthropist  went  far  beyond  the  A  B 
C,  and  that  its  aim  was  to  put  the  freedom  and  development 
of  the  individual  in  the  place  of  the  mechanical  routine  of 
the  old  schools,  which  did  little  more  than  produce  a  mass 
of  dull  uniformity.  With  this  aim  Napoleon  was  entirely 
out  of  sympathy,  and  whenever  the  subject  was  mentioned, 
would  say,  "  The  Pestalozzians  are  Jesuits." 

For  this  reason,  if  for  no  other,  Pestalozzi  rejoiced  at  the 
success  of  the  allied  sovereigns,  whose  coalition  was  to 
liberate  Europe. 

Opinions  were  divided,  however,  in  Switzerland  on  this 
point ;  but  as  the  Swiss  were  not  in  a  position  to  maintain 
their  neutrality,  the  Austrian  troops  passed  through  the 
country  to  enter  France  by  the  frontier  of  the  Jura. 

On  Christmas  day,  1813,  a  regiment  of  Esterhazy's  Hun- 
garian hussars  arrived  at  Yverdun,  and  were  soon  followed 
by  a  large  number  of  Croatian  infantry. 


DECLINE  OF  THE  INSTITUTE.  307 

On  the  9th  of  January,  1814,  th  5  municipality  received 
orders  from  the  Austrian  Commissary  at  Pontarlier,  to  pre- 
pare a  military  hospital  at  Yverdun,  and,  a  few  days  after, 
two  delegates  arrived  to  choose  the  locality,  and  make,  at 
the  town's  expense,  all  the  necessary  preparations.  They 
appropriated  four  blocks  of  buildings :  the  castle  of  Yver- 
dun with  two  hundred  and  seventy  beds,  the  old  barn  oppo- 
site (now  a  casino)  with  two  hundred  beds,  the  bath-house 
of  Yverdun  with  ninety-four  beds,  and  the  castle  of  Grandson 
with  one  hundred  and  sixteen  beds.  The  municipality 
immediately  informed  the  cantonal  Government,  and  urged 
it  to  help  them  deliver  the  commune  from  the  danger  which 
threatened  it.  The  Petty  Council  only  returned  answer  that 
they  should  consider  all  expenses  necessitated  by  a  military 
hospital  as  a  cantonal  charge,  and  that  they  would  enforce 
the  payment  by  the  State.  Nevertheless  the  population  of 
Yverdun  were  much  frightened,  for  the  Austrian  troops, 
encumbered  with  sick  and  wounded,  were  seriously  ravaged 
by  typhus.  The  municipality  accordingly  appointed  two 
delegates  to  go  to  the  head-quarters  of  the  allied  armies 
and  ask  for  a  revocation  of  these  orders.  Pestalozzi,  the 
very  existence  of  whose  establishment  was  seriously  threat- 
ened, accompanied  the  municipal  delegates,  and  it  was  this 
which  saved  the  town. 

It  is  quite  certain  that  the  representatives  of  the  town  of 
Yverdun  had  but  little  idea  of  Pestalozzi's  real  merit.  They 
must  have  felt  very  little  honoured  by  this  fellow-traveller, 
who  in  the  eyes  of  the  vulgar  was  but  an  eccentric  old  man, 
shabbily  dressed,  and  careless  of  his  person.  But  their  sur- 
prise was  great  when,  on  arriving  at  Basle,  they  witnessed 
his  reception  by  the  allied  sovereigns.  On  the  21st  of 
January  they  returned  to  Yverdun,  and  the  day  after,  an- 
nounced to  the  municipality  that  "  their  mission  had  had 
perfect  success,  that  no  military  hospital  would  be  estab- 
lished at  Yverdun,  and  that  Mr.  Pestalozzi  had  been  received 
with  most  extraordinary  favour." 

And  yet  the  old  man  had  not  been  less  eccentric  at  the 
head-quarters  at  Basle  than  anywhere  else.  He  no  sooner 
found  himself  in  the  presence  of  the  Emperor  of  Russia  and 
his  officers,  than,  thinking  it  a  good  opportunity  to  preach 
educational  reform  and  the  liberation  of  the  serfs,  he  be- 
came so  enthusiastic  and  so  ardent  that  he  completely  for- 


308         PESTALOZZI:    HIS  LIFE  AND    WORK. 

got  his  position,  and  approached  so  near  the  emperor,  that 
the  latter  was  obliged  to  retreat.  It  was  not  till  he  had 
forced  him  nearly  to  the  wall,  and  was  in  the  act  of  taking 
him  by  the  button  of  his  coat,  that  Pestalozzi  suddenly 
became  aware  of  his  indiscretion.  Muttering  an  apology,  he 
then  sought  to  kiss  the  Czar's  hand,  but  Alexander  cordially 
embraced  him. 

Notwithstanding  his  eccentricity,  Pestalozzi's  words  pro- 
duced a  great  effect,  and  those  about  the  emperor  thought 
at  one  time  that  he  contemplated  putting  the  Swiss  philan- 
thropist's views  into  execution. 

But,  alas !  the  Muscovite  serfs  had  to  wait  another  fifty 
years  for  their  emancipation,  and  the  Russian  people,  though 
proud  of  their  civilization,  are  still  waiting  for  good  schools. 
But  in  this  respect  they  do  not  stand  alone. 

The  Czar  decorated  Pestalozzi  with  the  cross  of  Saint 
Vladimir  of  the  third  class,  and  sent  him  a  collection  of 
minerals  from  the  Oural  for  his  school.  The  Emperor  of 
Austria  also  sent  him  a  case  of  Tokay  wine. 

Thus  this  poor  old  man,  the  weakest  and  awkwardest  of 
mankind,  and  the  most  unattractive  in  appearance,  was  able 
to  excite  the  attention  and  sympathy  of  princes  at  a  moment 
even  when  they  were  intoxicated  with  success  and  glory. 
For  the  honour  of  humanity,  this  triumph  was  won  by  his 
moral  beauty, — a  consoling  thought,  which  enables  us  to  for- 
get many  a  wrong. 

Of  the  four  blocks  of  buildings  chosen  for  military  hospi- 
tals, the  castle  of  Grandson  alone  was  used.  The  typhus, 
however,  broke  out  in  the  village  of  that  name,  which  is  not 
far  from  Yverdun,  and  was  not  stamped  out  of  the  neigh- 
bourhood for  several  years.  Nor  did  the  town  of  Yverdun 
escape ;  indeed  one  of  Pestalozzi's  own  pupils  took  the  dis- 
ease, though  not  very  seriously.  It  may  not  be  amiss  to 
mention  here  that  since  the  foundation  of  his  establishment 
Pestalozzi  had  never  lost  a  single  pupil  by  death. 

During  that  same  year  the  King  of  Prussia  paid  a  visit  to 
his  principality  of  Neuchatel,  which  had  just  been  restored 
to  him,  and  where  he  was  received  with  almost  unanimous 
joy.  While  he  was  there,  Pestalozzi,  although  very  ill,  in- 
sisted on  going  to  thank  him  for  having  sent  him  so  many 
student-teachers  to  train,  and  did  not  forget  to  remind  him 
of  the  importance  of  the  work  these  young  men  were  about 


DECLINE  OF  THE  INSTITUTE.  309 

to  undertake  in  Prussia.     Ramsauer,  who  accompanied  him, 
makes  the  following  reference  to  the  occasion  : 

"  During  the  journey  Pestalozzi  had  several  fainting  fits, 
so  that  I  was  obliged  to  take  him  from  the  carriage  and 
carry  him  into  a  neighbouring  house.  I  constantly  urged 
him  to  return  home.  '  Hold  your  tongue  ! '  he  said  ;  '  I. 
must  see  the  king,  even  though  it  should  cost  me  my  life. 
If  I  can  bring  about  a  better  education  for  a  single  Prussian 
child,  I  shall  be  fully  rewarded.' " 

Peace  brought  a  new  period  of  external  prosperity  to  the 
establishment  at  Yverdun;  pupils,  young  assistants,  and 
visitors  flocked  there  in  numbers  and  from  all  countries, 
Prance  and  England  at  length  following  the  example  already 
set  by  Germany.  But  this  great  concourse  of  people  of  all 
languages  was  equally  fatal  to  the  internal  arrangements  of 
the  establishment  and  to  its  financial  position.  Ramsauer 
gives  the  following  account  of  one  of  those  frequent  visits 
about  which  Pestalozzi  became  so  excited,  but  which  threw 
the  lessons  into  such  confusion : 

"  In  1814,  old  Prince  Esterhazy  arrived.  Pestalozzi  at 
once  rap  «*fl  over  the  Castle,  crying,  '  Ramsauer,  Ramsauer ! 
where  are  you  ?  Take  your  best  pupils  (for  gymnastics, 
drawing,  arithmetic,  and  geometry)  and  come  quickly  to  the 
Red  House  (the  hotel  where  the  prince  was  staying).  He 
is  a  very  important  personage,  and  immensely  rich ;  he  owns 
thousands  of  serfs  in  Hungary  and  Austria,  and  it  is  quite 
certain  that  he  will  establish  schools  and  liberate  his  pea- 
santry as  soon  as  he  understands  our  system,  etc.' 

"  I  accordingly  took  some  fifteen  of  the  pupils  to  the  hotel, 
where  Pestalozzi  presented  me  to  the  prince,  saying : 

'"This  is  the  master  of  these  pupils ;  he  came  to  my  house 
about  fifteen  years  ago  with  other  poor  children  from  the 
canton  of  Appenzell,  and  has  been  brought  up  without  re- 
straint, and  by  the  free  development  of  his  own  powers  ; 
now  he  is  himself  a  teacher,  and  you  will  see  in  him  a  proof 
that  the  poor  are  just  as  capable  as  the  rich,  if  not  more  so, 
provided  only  that  their  intellect  be  methodically  developed, 
which  however  is  rarely  the  case.  Hence  it  is  of  the  greatest 
importance  to  improve  our  popialar  schools ;  but  he  will  ex- 
plain everything  to  you  better  than  I  could  myself.' 


3io        PESTALOZZI:    HIS  LIFE  AND    WORK. 

"  Pestalozzi  then  left  us,  and  I  set  to  work  questioning, 
explaining,  and  bawling,  with  an  energy  which  made  me 
very  hot  and  tired,  never  doubting  for  a  moment  that  the 
prince  was  perfectly  convinced.  On  Pestalozzi's  return  at 
the  end  of  an  hour,  the  prince  expressed  his  satisfaction, 
and  we  took  our  leave.  Going  downstairs,  Pestalozzi  said, 
'  He  is  quite  convinced,  thoroughly  convinced ;  he  will 
certainly  set  up  some  schools  in  Hungary.'  At  the  bottom 
of  the  stairs  Pestalozzi  suddenly  cried  out,  '  Why,  what  is 
the  matter  with  my  arm  ?  Look,  how  swollen  it  is  ;  and  it 
is  so  stiff  that  I  cannot  bend  it.'  And  as  a  matter  of  fact 
the  large  sleeve  of  his  coat  looked  almost  too  tight.  I 
immediately  noticed  that  the  great  house-key  was  bent  in 
the  lock,  and  we  concluded  that  on  coming  in  an  hour  before 
he  must  have  knocked  his  elbow  against  the  key  and  bent 
it.  And  yet,  so  ardent  was  the  flame  that  burned  within  him, 
even  at  seventy  years  of  age,  when  his  mind  was  bent  on 
doing  good,  that  during  that  hour  the  old  man  had  felt  no 
pain.  I  may  add  that  I  could  give  many  more  instances  ot 
the  same  sort  of  thing." 

We  have  now  arrived  at  a  time  when  there  were  almost 
as  many  French  as  Germans  in  the  institute. 

The  consequence  of  this  was  that  a  master  was  often 
obliged  to  make  his  observations  in  both  languages ;  very 
often,  too,  a  pupil  could  not  be  placed  in  the  class  which 
would  have  suited  him  best,  on  account  of  his  not  under- 
standing the  language  in  which  it  was  conducted. 

The  pupils  who  came  from  French  schools,  having  been 
accustomed  to  an  almost  military  discipline,  were  inclined 
to  take  advantage  of  the  liberty  they  enjoyed  at  Yverdun ; 
accustomed,  too,  to  look  upon  the  masters  as  natural  enemies, 
with  whom  they  must  necessarily  be  at  war,  they  took  plea- 
sure in  playing  all  sorts  of  tricks  upon  them.  Furthermore, 
having  been  deprived  suddenly  of  the  only  stimulus  they 
had  hitherto  known,  the  stimulus  of  self-love,  they  were 
little  disposed  to  study,  where  there  was  neither  reward  to 
hope  for  nor  punishment  to  fear.  At  the  same  time  the 
rustic  simplicity  of  life  in  the  institute  filled  them  with 
repugnance  and  contempt.  Much  less  than  this  would  have 
sufficed  to  promote  indiscipline  and  confusion  in  the  estab- 
lishment, so  that  the  result  may  be  imagined. 


DECLINE   OF  THE  INSTITUTE.  311 

Jullien  had  undertaken  to  obtain  some  French  masters  for 
the  institute,  but  among  those  he  sent  there,  only  one  was 
really  a  capable  man  and  fit  to  collaborate  with  Pestalozzi. 
This  was  Alexander  Boniface,  the  author  of  one  of  the  best 
French  grammars. 

"Amongst  all  the  men  of  note,"  said  Jullien,  "I  only 
found  Boniface  who  was  willing  to  give  up  Paris  for  toil  and 
moil  at  Yverdun." 

Of  a  cheerful  and  lively  disposition,  Boniface  was  a 
true  child  of  Paris,  but  he  was,  at  the  same  time,  kind 
and  simple  of  heart,  and  soon  learned  to  love  and  .admire 
Pestalozzi.  He  became  the  centre  of  the  French  side  of  the 
institute,  and  exercised  a  most  salutary  influence.  By  his 
uniform  kindness  to  the  children  he  won  their  love,  and,  in 
spite  of  his  not  very  imposing  presence,  their  entire  respect. 
He  was  small  and  exceedingly  short-sighted,  and  generally 
wore  red  or  green  slippers,  which  was  thought  at  Yverdun 
to  be  an  extraordinary  eccentricity.  To  a  good  knowledge 
of  classics  he  joined  a  cultivated  taste,  and  gave  excellent 
lessons  in  grammar  and  French  literature,  in  which  the 
scholars  took  great  interest.  On  his  return  to  Paris  he 
founded  a  higher  school  on  Pestalozzi's  principles.  When 
in  1829  Mr.  de  Vatismenil  appointed  a  Commission  to  inquire 
into  the  methods  employed  in  private  schools  in  Paris,  the 
commissioners,  after  a  very  conscientious  examination,  made 
a  report  to  the  minister,  in  which  they  declared  the  method 
employed  by  Mr.  Boniface  to  be  superior  to  all  the  others 
they  had  examined.  (Pompee,  p.  269.) 

At  this  time,  unfortunately,  the  assistant  masters  were  not 
all  like  Boniface  ;  they  were  not  all  zealous  and  diligent  in 
their  work,  and  often,  in  the  absence  of  any  complete  con- 
trol, did  very  much  as  they  liked.  The  devotion  of  the  good 
teachers  was  powerless  against  all  the  elements  of  disorder 
which  had  crept  into  the  institute,  and  none  of  them  could 
make  up  for  the  administrative  weakness  of  its  head.  Con- 
currently with  this,  the  financial  position  grew  more  and 
more  unsatisfactory,  and  the  various  causes  of  ruin  already 
referred  to  were  increased  by  the  great  extension  that  peace 
had  given  to  the  establishment. 

Ju  this  state  of  things  Schmidt  was  thought  of  as  the  only 
man  capable  of  governing  with  a  strong  hand.  Niederer, 
his  old  antagonist,  was  the  first  to  advise  Pestalozzi  to  recall 


312          PESTALOZZI:    HIS  LIFE  AND    WORK. 

him,  and   even  undertook   to   go  and  urge   him  to  return 
himself. 

Schmidt  was  now  the  director  of  the  public  school  of 
Bregenz,  an  establishment  which  his  talents  and  energy  had 
brought  into  a  state  of  great  prosperity.  It  was  there  that 
Niederer  sought  him  out,  and  succeeded  in  inducing  him  to 
return  to  Yverdun.  Niederer  had  never  denied  Schmidt's 
grea:  capacity,  and  at  that  time  still  had  perfect  confidence 
in  his  character.  We  may  judge  of  this  from  the  following 
passage  of  a  letter  written  a  few  days  after  this  interview : 

"Rely  entirely  on  Pestalozzi's  love  ;  he  has  never  ceased 
to  look  on  you  as  a  son.  Besides  the  strength  which  makes 
you  valuable,  and  which  is  the  gift  of  Nature,  you  have 
still  greater  gifts,  for  you  are  a  true  man,  and  your  will 
is  set  on  good.  This  last  is  the  gift  of  a  man  to  himself, 
and  is  what  makes  you  worthy  of  our  respect." 

Schmidt  returned  to  Yverdun  at  Easter,  1815,  and  Pesta- 
lozzi,  receiving  him  as  a  son  who  was  sacrificing  himself 
for  his  father,  made  vows  of  eternal  gratitude. 

On  his  arrival,  Schmidt  at  once  quietly  set  about  the 
necessary  reforms,  working  almost  incessantly  day  and 
night.  He  dismissed  useless  teachers,  reduced  the  salary 
of  others,  stopped  waste,  and  restored  order  and  regularity 
in  the  lessons  as  well  as  discipline  among  the  pupils.  All 
Pestalozzi's  right-minded  coadjutors  willingly  gave  him 
their  aid  in  these  much-needed  reforms. 

But  Schmidt  wanted  to  be  master,  to  wield,  that  is,  the 
sole  authority  in  the  name  of  Pestalozzi.  Taking  advantage 
of  what  had  been  told  him  of  his  usefiilness,  he  went 
straight  to  his  end  with  an  acuteness,  ability,  perseverance, 
and  calm  energy  that  never  forsook  him.  Under  a  mask 
of  respect  and  affection,  he  submitted  his  proposals  to  the 
old  man  as  the  only  conditions  of  safety,  conditions  with- 
out which  he  could  answer  for  nothing.  At  the  same  time 
he  succeeded  in  winning  the  women  of  the  establishment 
to  his  side  :  Mrs.  Pestalozzi,  because  she  was  tired  of  the 
philosophy  of  Niederer,  and  found  him  incapable  of  pro- 
tecting her  husband's  financial  position ;  Mrs.  Kuster,  to 
whom  it  had  been  pointed  out,  after  the  event,  that  Mrs. 
Niederer  had  behaved  very  badly  to  her  in  taking  her  place 


DECLINE  OF  THE  INSTITUTE.  313 

as  directress  of  the  girls'  school ;  and,  lastly,  the  faithful 
housekeeper,  Lisbeth  Krusi  herself,  who  looked  on  Schmidt 
as  the  only  man  capable  of  restoring  order  and  economy  in 
domestic  matters.  Schmidt,  indeed,  had  this  merit,  that 
he  was  satisfied  with  little,  and  was  continually  preaching 
plain  living.  We  shall  soon  see,  however,  that  Mrs.  Krusi 
had  cause  to  repent  of  the  preference  she  had  given  him. 

In  this  same  year,  1815,  Pestalozzi  published  at  Yverdun 
a  book  which  he  had  written  the  previous  year,  entitled : 
A  Word  in  Season  to  the  Innocent,  Serious,  and  Noble- 
Minded  Ones  of  My  Country. 

If  it  is  chiefly  to  Switzerland  that  the  author  addresses 
his  remarks,  it  is  not  to  her  alone,  but  also  to  the  whole  of 
Europe,  which,  set  free  by  Napoleon's  fall,  is  about  to  enter 
on  a  new  era,  an  era  it  may  be  of  virile  and  moral  reno- 
vation, ensuring  peace  both  at  home  and  abroad,  or  it  may 
be  of  weakness,  vanity,  and  selfishness,  such  as  has  already 
ended  in  revolution,  licence,  and  despotism.  The  nations 
of  Europe  are  corrupted  by  a  sensual  civilization,  which  does 
but  stimulate  their  appetites  and  their  vanity,  making  those 
who  suffer  envious  of  those  who  enjoy,  and  those  who 
enjoy  insensible  to  the  troubles  of  those  who  suffer.  There 
is  none  of  that  real  moral  civilization  which  exalts  a  man 
and  makes  him  capable  of  love,  commiseration,  and  abne- 
gation. The  first  step  to  this  higher  civilization  is  the 
reform  of  public  education. 

We  have  endeavoured  to  give  in  a  few  words  some  idea 
of  the  subject  treated  by  Pestalozzi ;  but  what  we  have 
just  said  can  convey  but  a  faint  idea  of  the  many  precious 
truths  and  valuable  and  original  ideas  to  be  found  in  this 
new  work,  which  is  as  it  were  a  continuation  of  that 
which  the  author  had  written  some  years  previously :  Ait 
Inquiry  into  the  Course  of  Nature  in  the  Development  of 
the  Human  Race.  But  the  second  work  is  more  matured, 
more  clearly  written,  and  more  practical.  It  is  now  fifty- 
seven  years  since  it  was  first  published  and  yet  it  has  lost 
none  of  its  appropriateness.  Europe  would  still  do  well  to 
think  over  this  advice,  and  act  on  it. 

About  this  time  there  arrived  at  Yverdun  the  celebrated 

Doctor  Bell,  the  founder  of  the  system  of  mutual  instruction 

in   England.      His  visit  to  the  far-famed   institute   had  a 

double  motive.     He  came  partly  to  see  Pestalozzi,  this  man 

22 


314         PESTALOZZI:   HIS  LIFE  AND    WORK. 

whose  reputation  as  the  inventor  and  propagator  of  a  new 
method  of  education  rivalled  his  own,  partly  in  the  hope 
of  discovering  some  further  improvement  for  his  own 
system.  Bell  understood  neither  French  nor  German,  but 
he  found  an  interpreter  in  the  establishment  whom  he 
knew  already.  This  was  Ackermann,  the  Saxon,  a  teacher 
of  some  merit,  who  had  left  Pestalozzi  in  1813  to  fight  for 
the  liberation  of  Germany,  and  who,  before  returning  to 
Yverdun,  had  spent  some  time  in  England  visiting  Bell's 
schools  and  examining  his  method. 

During  his  visit  to  Yverdun,  Bell,  after  watching  the 
lessons  in  the  different  classes,  gave,  with  the  help  of  some 
teachers  and  under-teachers,  a  sort  of  representation  of  his 
own  method ;  there  was,  moreover,  a  conference,  in  which 
Pestalozzi  and  the  Doctor  summed  up,  with  Ackermann's 
help,  their  chief  objections  to  each  other's  system.  But, 
whatever  the  merits  and  defects  of  the  rival  systems  may  have 
been,  the  Englishman  certainly  possessed  one  talent  that  the 
Swiss  was  without :  for  whereas  the  latter  by  his  educational 
labours  had  ruined  himself,  the  former  had  amassed  a 
fortune  of  £2,000  a  year.  On  leaving  Yverdun,  Bell,  in 
company  with  Ackermann  and  Jullien,  went  to  Freiburg,  to 
visit  the  schools  of  Father  Girard,  who,  with  true  pedago- 
gical tact  and  elevated  moral  views,  had  applied  to  his  own 
system  all  that  was  really  good  in  the  method  of  Bell  and 
Lancaster.  On  taking  leave  of  Ackermann,  Bell  said  :  "  In 
another  twelve  years  mutual  instruction  will  be  adopted  by 
the  whole  world,  and  Pestalozzi's  method  will  be  forgotten." 

A  few  days  afterwards,  one  of  those  inquisitive  and 
ignorant  people  whom  fashion  alone  induced  to  visit  Pesta- 
lozzi, was  presented  to  him,  and  accosted  the  old  man 
with :  "  It  is  you,  sir,  I  believe,  who  invented  mutual 
instruction?"  "  God  forbid,"  replied  Pestalozzi.  And  yet 
seventeen  years  before,  at  Stanz,  he  had  already  in  his  own 
way  made  use  of  the  system. 

Early  in  December,  1815,  Mrs.  Pestalozzi  fell  ill ;  her 
strength  was  gone.  Without  suffering  and  with  admirable 
tranquillity,  the  good  and  kind  old  woman,  now  in  her 
seventy-ninth  year,  felt  her  life  slowly  ebbing  away.  She 
died  on  the  evening  of  the  12th,  as  she  lay  upon  her  couch. 
She  was  still  lying  there  when  Pestalozzi's  partkmlar 
friends,  anxious  to  share  his  sorrow,  hastened  to  his  side. 


DECLINE   OF    THE  INSTITUTE.  315 

Her  obsequies  took  place  on  the  16th.  The  first  thing  in 
the  morning  the  coffin  was  placed  in  the  chapel.  The  whole 
of  the  household  had  assembled  there,  and  were  singing 
a  funeral  hymn,  when  the  unhappy  old  man  entered.  As 
soon  as  the  singing  had  ceased,  he  approached  the  coffin, 
and,  addressing  himself  to  his  faithful  companion  as  if  she 
could  still  hear  him,  passed  in  review  their  forty-five  years 
of  companionship,  so  full  of  labours,  trials,  and  disasters, 
dwelling  particularly  on  the  many  sacrifices  she  had  made 
and  the  many  sufferings  she  had  endured  for  him  and  through 
his  fault.  After  speaking  of  the  time  when,  "  forsaken  and 
scoffed  at  by  everybody,  and  weighed  down  by  misery  and 
disease,"  they  had  eaten  their  "  dry  bread  with  bitter  tears," 
he  added :  "  What,  in  those  days  of  affliction,  gave  us  the 
strength  to  bear  our  troubles  and  recover  hope  ? "  and, 
seizing  a  Bible  which  was  near  him,  he  drew  still  nearer 
the  body,  crying :  "  This  is  the  source  whence  you  drew, 
whence  we  both  drew,  courage,  strength,  and  peace  !  " 

The  coffin  was  then  closed,  and  carried,  followed  by 
all  the  household  and  a  large  concourse  of  the  inhabitants 
of  Yverdun,  to  the  farthest  end  of  the  garden,  where,  in 
accordance  with  Mrs.  Pestalozzi's  express  desire,  a  grave 
had  been  dug  between  two  walnut  trees.  At  the  tomb 
there  was  singing  by  the  boys  and  girls,  and  a  prayer  by 
Niederer,  who  also  preached  the  sermon  on  their  return  to 
the  chapel.  The  ceremony  ended  with  Klopstock's  beautiful 
hymn  :  The  Song  of  Triumph  of  Christian  Hope. 

Pestalozzi's  grief  was  profound  ;  for  a  long  time  he  would 
go  stealthily  out  at  night,  when  all  were  asleep,  and  pray  and 
weep  under  the  walnut  trees,  on  the  marble  slab  engraved 
with  his  wife's  name,  and  the  dates  of  her  birth  and  death.1 
And  he  had  reason  to  lament  her  who  so  long  had  been  his 
support,  his  adviser,  and  his  good  angel ;  for  now  that  she 
was  gone,  he  was  to  be  buffeted  by  the  winds  of  adversity, 
like  a  ship  without  a  rudder. 

Pestalozzi,  however,  was  strangely  impressionable,  and 
when  once  possessed  by  his  favourite  idea  of  elevating  the 
lower  classes,  he  forgot  everything  else.  Some  short  time 
after  the  death  of  his  wife,  one  of  his  old  pupils,  deeply 
moved  by  his  loss,  came  to  see  him.  After  a  few  words 

1  The  remains  of  Mrs  Pestalozzi  now  lie  in  the  cemetery  of  Yverdun 


316         PESTALOZZT:    HIS  LIFE  AND    WORK. 

on  the  painful  subject  of  the  visit,  the  old  man  began  to 
speak  of  his  new  plans  and  new  hopes  for  his  success 
of  his  method,  and  before  long,  carried  away  by  his  illu- 
sions and  enthusiasm,  he  cried  excitedly  :  "  I  am  swimming 
in  a  sea  of  joy  !  " 

The  year  1816  opened  very  sadly  for  Pestalozzi,  and  it 
was  destined  to  be  a  disastrous  one.  The  old  man  looked 
upon  Schmidt  more  and  more  as  his  only  means  of  salvation, 
and  was  prepared  to  sacrifice  everything  to  keep  him,  but 
as  he  could  only  keep  him  by  allowing  him  to  have  his  own 
way,  he  ceased  any  longer  to  have  a  will  of  his  own. 

From  this  time,  Schmidt,  certain  of  his  power,  cared  little 
how  he  acted.  He  suppressed  the  meetings  of  the  masters, 
and  gave  his  own  orders  in  Pestalozzi's  name.  He  was  a 
tall  man,  rather  slim,  but  strong  and  sinewy  ;  his  dark  face, 
with  its  eagle  eyes,  had  an  expression  of  impassible  severity ; 
he  was  feared  no  less  than  Pestalozzi  was  beloved,  and  yet 
he  exercised  considerable  influence  over  many  of  the 
scholars.  He  moved  about  the  house  with  a  high  head  and 
a  proud  gait,  as  if  to  impress  upon  everybody  that  he  was 
the  master. 

To  show  the  progress  he  had  made  since  his  arrival  at 
Yverdun,  we  may  mention  an  incident  which  occurred  in 
1805,  and  which  was  told  us  by  an  eye-witness.  In  those 
days,  Schmidt  was  very  careless  of  his  appearance,  and 
amongst  other  things  wore  a  cap  which  was  no  longer  pre- 
sentable. One  day,  during  a  lesson  that  he  was  giving  to 
the  children,  de  Muralt  entered  the  class,  and  seeing  the 
dirty  cap  on  a  form,  threw  it  out  of  the  window  into  the 

The  grave  is  on  the  left  as  you  enter  the  cemetery.  The  following  in- 
scription has  been  added  to  the  first : 

The  Worthy  Wife 

of 

PESTALOZZI, 

The  friend  of  the  poor, 

The  benefactor  of  the  people, 

The  reformer  of  education. 

His  close  partner  for  forty-six  years  in  his  work 

of  self-sacrifice,  she  has  left  behind  her  a 

blessed  and  venerated  memory. 

On  the  llth  of  August,  1866,  her  mortal  remains,  which  had  been 
resting  in  the  garden  of  the  Castle,  were  religiously  removed  to  thia 
place  by  the  municipality  of  Yverdun. 


DECLINE  OF  THE  INSTITUTE.  317 

river  which  ran  under  the  walls  of  the  Castle.  The  pupils 
all  laughed,  but  Schmidt  did  not  take  the  least  offence. 

The  man's  overbearing  manners,  however,  made  it  im- 
possible for  the  old  friends  of  Pestalozzi  to  remain  in  the 
institute.  Ramsauer  left  .him  in  the  early  spring  of  1816. 
For  a  long  time  he  had  refused  the  most  brilliant  offers 
rather  than  leave  his  benefactor,  and  it  was  only  after 
having  been  completely  thrust  aside  by  Schmidt  that  he 
decided  to  accept  one  of  three  proposals  that  had  just  been 
made  to  him. 

The  coadjutors  formed  by  Pestalozzi  were,  in  general,  as 
disinterested  as  himself,  and  had  as  little  idea  of  the  value 
of  money,  often  refusing  very  good  offers  for  the  sake  of 
retaining  their  modest  and  laborious  positions,  save  when 
the  master  himself,  with  a  view  to  spreading  his  method  of 
education,  encouraged  them  to  leave. 

Pestalozzi  had  always  clung  to  the  hope  of  founding 
a  new  school  for  the  poor,  and  had  relied  upon  Ramsauer  to 
direct  it ;  indeed,  ever  since  1807,  he  had  made  him  learn 
several  handicrafts  for  that  very  purpose.  But,  strangely 
enough,  this  poor,  neglected  child,  who  had  been  so  care- 
fully trained  to  educate  other  poor  children,  was  finally  to 
become  the  tutor  of  the  princes  and  princesses  of  Olden- 
burg. 

One  of  the  heaviest  losses  Pestalozzi  had  to  endure  was 
that  of  his  faithful  housekeeper,  Lisbeth  Krusi,  the  woman 
to  whom  he  owed  so  much.  Schmidt  was  anxious  to  effect 
certain  reforms  in  the  housekeeping,  which  were  no  doubt 
necessary,  and  which  old  Lisbeth  was  probably  incapable  of 
carrying  out.  But,  at  any  price,  some  quiet  and  comfortable 
position  in  the  house  ought  to  have  been  found  for  her.  It 
would  appear  that  nothing  of  the  sort  was  done,  for  she 
insisted  on  leaving.  She  had  lost  her  husband  many  years 
before,  and  had  an  only  son,  who  was  an  idiot.  Thus  this 
heroic  woman,  who  had  saved  Pestalozzi  and  his  family  at 
Neuhof,  and  who  had  served  as  a  type  for  the  character  of 
Gertrude,  went  away  from  Yverdun  with  her  child,  and 
ended  her  days  in  the  poor-house  of  her  husband's  parish,  at 
Gais. 

Under  the  new  housekeeper,  Miss  Ray,  of  Grandson,  the 
living  became  somewhat  less  coarse  and  a  little  more  varied, 
the  soup  and  fruit  being  replaced  at  times  by  coffee,  choco- 


3i8         PESTALOZZI:   HIS  LIFE  AND    WORK. 

late,  and  other  delicacies.  At  the  same  time  anything  like 
prodigality  was  carefully  avoided.  But  for  all  this,  alasl 
the  financial  position  was  none  the  better. 

Towards  the  end  of  1816,  the  German  masters  in  the 
institute  resolved  to  celebrate  •  the  triumph  of  German 
independence.  On  the  18th  of  October,  after  dinner,  they 
marched  to  the  hill  called  "  The  Duke  of  Burgundy,"  where, 
according  to  tradition,  Charles  the  Bold  had  fixed  his  tent 
and  camp  during  the  battle  of  Grandson.  There  they 
lighted  a  large  fire,  sang  German  hymns,  and  drank  wine, 
remaining  until  night-fall. 

Pestalozzi,  who  was  one  of  the  party,  was  full  of  spirits 
and  mirth,  but  what  he  celebrated  was  not  the  triumph 
of  one  nation  over  another,  but  the  despot  Napoleon's 
fall  that  had  set  so  many  nations  free.  Ackermann,  to 
whom  we  owe  the  details  of  this  little  episode,  tells  us  that 
at  that  time  the  remains  of  the  outer  walls  of  the  camp 
were  still  to  be  seen,  and  that  he  himself  climbed  to  the 
top  of  the  ruins  and  proposed  a  toast  "  To  the  liberty  of  the 
whole  human  race,"  to  which  about  thirty  people  drank 
with  a  triple  round  of  hurrahs. 

In  a  very  short  time  it  was  the  German  masters  who 
could  no  longer  bear  Schmidt's  supremacy  ;  they  felt  that 
he  was  perverting  the  spirit  of  Pestalozzi's  institution  and 
injuring  his  reputation.  They  therefore  resolved  to  lay 
their  complaints  and  fears  before  Pestalozzi  in  a  joint  letter, 
which  was  drawn  up  by  Blochmann,  and  signed  by  sixteen 
masters,  under-masters,  and  student-teachers. 

Those  who  had  signed  the  letter  were  one  evening  sum- 
moned to  the  old  man's  bedside.  Schmidt  was  already  there, 
and  proceeded  to  read  his  written  defence,  after  which,  as 
the  complainants  were  neither  satisfied  nor  reassured, 
Pestalozzi  declared  that  he  would  rather  see  them  all  go 
than  restrict  in  any  way  the  power  of  the  only  man  who 
was  capable  of  saving  him.  A  most  painful  scene  then 
occurred,  the  old  man  at  one  moment  deploring  the  decay 
of  his  institute  and  asking  for  everybody's  support,  at 
another,  seizing  Schmidt's  hand  and  calling  him  his  saviour 
and  guardian  angel.  But  as  Schmidt  remained  inflexible,  it 
was  impossible  to  come  to  an  understanding,  and  in  the 
following  spring  all  the  Germans  left  Yverdun. 

Later  on  Blochmann  acknowledged,  in  a  really  Christian 


DECLINE  OF  THE  INSTITUTE.  319 

spirit,  that  wounded  pride  had  something  to  do  with  the 
determination  taken  by  his  colleagues  and  himself,  and  that 
their  clear  duty  was  to  remain  and  suffer. 

Certain  children  of  the  neighbourhood,  of  families  in 
needy  circumstances,  that  is,  had  formerly  been  received 
gratuitously  into  Pestalozzi's  establishment,  where  they  had 
in  time  become  under-masters.  These  men,  with  a  few  new- 
comers, now  did  their  best  to  replace  the  masters  who  had 
left ;  the  teaching,  however,  suffered  considerably.  Niederer 
and  Krusi  were  almost  the  only  good  masters  that  remained 
with  Schmidt,  but  soon  even  their  position  became  almost 
unbearable.  Krusi,  simple-minded  and  modest,  gentle  and 
affectionate,  groaned  in  secret,  but  suffered  everything 
without  complaining.  Niederer,  on  the  other  hand,  could 
not  submit  to  this  new  state  of  things,  and  was  continually 
at  strife  with  Schmidt,  the  animosity  between  them  becoming 
more  and  more  violent  every  day. 

Meanwhile  the  financial  position  of  the  institute  was 
going  from  bad  to  worse.  At  the  pressing  solicitation 
of  Jullien,  some  experienced  and  honourable  merchants  of 
the  town  had  consented  to  come  once  a  week  to  examine  the 
books  and  accounts ;  but  their  obliging  intervention  could 
only  confirm  the  existence  of  the  evil,  not  cure  it.  In  that 
year  of  rain  and  floods,  there  was  a  dearth  in  the  country, 
and  food  had  risen  considerably  in  price.  Pestalozzi  decided 
therefore  to  raise  the  school-fees ;  but  even  then  he  could 
not  meet  the  increased  expenditure,  although  the  number 
of  his  pupils  was  rapidly  falling  off. 

It  was  at  this  juncture  that  Schmidt  conceived  the  idea 
of  publishing,  by  subscription,  a  new  edition  of  Pestalozzi's 
works,  as  a  means  of  raising  the  money  of  which  the  insti- 
tute stood  so  much  in  need.  To  this  scheme  he  easily 
induced  the  old  man  to  consent. 

We  must  here  point  out  that  the  views  of  Schmidt  and 
Pestalozzi  as  to  the  destination  of  the  funds  to  be  yielded 
by  the  subscription  were  not  quite  the  same. 

Schmidt  wanted  money  to  repair  the  finances  of  the 
institute  and  secure  its  position,  not  only  in  the  immediate 
future,  but  even  after  Pestalozzi's  death.  The  latter,  on 
the  other  hand,  looked  forward  chiefly  to  at  last  finding 
himself  in  a  position  to  found  and  establish  on  a  proper 
basis  that  school  for  the  poor  which  had  been  the  dream 


320         PESTALOZZ1:   HIS  LIFE  AND    WORK. 

of  his  whole  life,  a  desire  with  which  Schmidt  had  little 
or  no  sympathy.  As  our  history  proceeds,  this  divergence 
of  views  will  stand  out  more  and  more  clearly. 

In  the  month  of  March,  1817,  Pestalozzi  issued  an  appeal 
asking  for  subscribers  to  the  complete  edition  of  his  works. 
In  this  appeal  he  sets  forth  his  position  in  a  very  touching 
manner.  After  a  long  life  of  toil  and  sacrifice,  he  is  in 
danger  of  seeing  the  fruit  of  his  labours  lost  for  humanity  ; 
he  has  undertaken  much  beyond  his  strength,  bnt  he  now 
intends  to  turn  his  experience  to  the  profit  of  the  one  aim  of 
his  life,  the  raising  of  the  people.  At  the  same  time  he  speaks 
of  his  institute  as  of  a  work  which  no  longer  belongs  to 
him,  but  which  ought  to  last  in  the  interests  of  humanity. 
Thus  the  destination  of  the  proceeds  of  the  subscription 
is  left  so  vague  as  to  admit  of  all  sorts  of  interpretations. 
But  everything  concerning  the  conditions  of  sale  and  col- 
lection of  subscriptions  is  settled  in  a  most  business-like 
manner,  and  all  friends,  schools,  and  governments  are 
entreated  in  the  most  pressing  terms  to  subscribe  and  find 
subscribers. 

Niederer  and  Krusi  refused  to  recognize  the  author  of 
this  appeal  in  the  noble  Pestalozzi ;  they  felt  that  it  was 
Schmidt's  work,  and  that  the  old  man  could  not  put  his  name 
to  it  without  dishonour.  But  their  opposition  was  in  vain, 
and  the  appeal  was  published.  It  was  then  that  they 
resolved  to  leave  their  benefactor,  him  whom  they  called 
their  father,1  and  the  old  man  was  left  alone  with  the  master 
he  had  chosen.  From  that  day  the  ruin  of  the  institute 
was  complete. 


1  Krusi  had  imperative  reasons  for  leaving  the  institute,  for  he  had 
been  married  some  years  previously,  and  his  modest  emoluments  did  not 
suffice  to  keep  his  family.  He  now  set  up  a  boarding-school  at  Yverd'in 
for  a  living. 


CHAPTER  XV. 

DEATH-AGONY  OF   THE  INSTITUTE. 

Despair  of  Pestalozzi  on  seeing  himself  forsaken  by  Niederer 
and  Krusi.  He  goes  away  ill  to  the  Jura  Mountains.  Ne- 
gotiations with  Fellenberg  for  securing  quiet  independence 
for  Pestalozzi  fall  through.  Success  of  the  subscription  for 
PestalozzVs  works.  His  discourse  of  the  12th  of  January, 
1818.  Foundation  of  a  pauper-school  at  Clendy.  Its  success. 
It  is  soon  made  part  of  the  institute  at  the  Castle.  Gottlieb 
Pestalozzi  returns  to  Yverdun  and  marries  Schmidt's  sister. 
Pestalozzi  quarrels  with  the  Yverdun  municipality.  He 
and  Schmidt  at  law  with  Niederer.  The  Vaudese  Govern- 
ment intervenes,  and  brings  about  a  settlement.  "  Views  on 
industry,  education,  and  politics,  in  connection  with  the 
state  of  our  country  before  and  after  the  Revolution,"  by 
Pestalozzi.  Fall  of  the  institute.  Schmidt  expelled  from 
the  canton  by  the  Government.  Pestalozzi  goes  with  him. 

WE  must  give  this  title  to  that  long  period  of  seven  years, 
during  which  Pestalozzi's  institute  still  existed  at  the  castle 
of  Yverdun,  although  little  more  than  the  shadow  of  what  it 
had  been. 

Henceforth  Pestalozzi  is  entirely  in  Schmidt's  hands, 
whom  he  regards  not  merely  as  a  son  who  has  sacrificed  all 
to  come  to  the  aid  of  his  father,  and  to  whom  he  owes  eternal 
gratitude,  but  as  a  saviour,  who  is  alone  capable  of  sustain- 
ing him,  and  whose  daily  support  has  become  indispensable. 
He  thus  thinks  himself  compelled  to  do  everything  to  please 
him,  espouses  all  his  quarrels,  and,  at  his  bidding,  repels  all 
his  own  old  friends,  and  even  refuses  to  take  the  hands 
stretched  out  to  save  him. 

These  unhappy  years  were  fiirther  troubled  by  disputes 
and  law-suits.  Niederer  and  Schmidt  first  attacked  one 
another  in  pamphlets  and  newspapers,  and  then  brought 
actions  for  calumny,  in  which,  unfortunately,  since  he  ac- 


322         PESTALOZZI:    HIS  LIFE  AND    WORK. 

cepted  the  responsibility  of  all  Schmidt's  actions,  Pestalozzi 
himself  had  to  appear.  The  unfortunate  controversy  pro- 
duced an  impression  on  the  public  mind  that  was  unfavourable 
even  to  Niederer,  and  far  more  so  to  Schmidt.  Some  bio- 
graphers have  even  gone  so  far  as  to  credit  certain  unproved 
statements  about  them,  which  we,  however,  believe  to  be 
slanders,  and  will  not  repeat,  preferring  to  confine  ourselves 
to  authenticated  facts.  These  two  colleagues  of  Pestalozzi 
were  associated  with  his  work  too  long,  and  rendered  the 
cause  of  education  too  many  services,  for  us  to  remember 
errors  committed  under  the  influence  of  passion. 

Whilst  Pestalozzi  thus  seemed  to  follow  Schmidt  blindly, 
and  showed  himself  more  than  ever  incapable  of  the  admin- 
istration and  direction  of  a  large  institute,  his  genius  for 
philosophical  investigation,  and  his  enthusiastic  devotion  to 
the  cause  of  the  poor  and  weak  of  this  world  were  as  great 
as  ever. 

In  this  latter  respect  his  views  were  not  in  harmony  with 
Schmidt's,  and  in  this  one  point  he  never  ceased  to  struggle 
with  the  man  who,  in  other  matters,  was  his  absolute  master, 
often,  as  we  shall  see,  coming  off  victorious.  We  shall  see 
him  steadily  working  at  the  development  and  improvement 
of  his  doctrine,  deluding  himself  with  the  illusions  of  a 
young  man,  zealously  reorganizing  and  planning  new  founda- 
tions, and,  at  the  very  moment  when  all  that  remained  of  his 
practical  work  was  about  to  crumble  under  his  feet,  opening 
and  successfully  conducting  a  new  school  for  the  poor. 

For  the  sake  of  characterizing  the  period  which  is  the 
subject  of  this  chapter,  we  have  been  obliged  to  anticipate 
somewhat ;  we  must  now  take  up  the  thread  of  events. 

After  the  departure  of  Blochnvann  and  his  German  col- 
leagues in  1816,  a  few  good  masters  still  remained  with 
Schmidt,  Niederer,  and  Krusi.  Among  the  number  were 
Boniface,  who  is  already  known  to  us ;  Stern,  who  taught 
Latin  and  Greek  well,  and  who  afterwards  became  the 
director  of  the  Gymnasium  at  Stuttgart ;  Knusert,  who  had 
left  the  French  army  in  1814,  after  the  peace,  and  had 
resumed  his  duties  in  Pestalozzi's  establishment,  where, 
amongst  other  things,  he  looked  after  the  military  drill ; 
and  Hagnauer,  a  talented  young  Swiss,  who  was  subsequently 
appointed  to  the  cantonal  school  of  Aarau. 

We  have  said  that  the  masters  who  had  left  had  beea 


DEATH-AGONY  OF   THE  INSTITUTE.  323 

replaced  by  young  men  who  were  not  always  very  highly 
qualified ;  we  must,  however,  make  an  exception  in  favour 
of  one  particularly  able  teacher,  who  at  this  critical  period 
proved  to  be  of  very  great  help  to  Pestalozzi.  This  was 
Lange,  a  man  of  good  education  and  manners,  and  though 
kind  and  gentle,  of  great  firmness  of  character.  He  spoke 
French  well,  and  conducted  morning  prayers  in  that  lan- 
guage for  pupils  ignorant  of  German. 

But  when  in  the  spring  of  1817  Niederer  and  Krusi  decided 
that  they  must  leave  Pestalozzi,  the  masters  just  mentioned 
were  not  long  before  they  followed  their  example. 

The  appeal  for  subscribers  to  Pestalozzi's  works,  the 
appeal,  that  is,  that  had  brought  about  the  ruptiire,  was 
published  in  the  last  days  of  March,  1817 ;  but  it  appears 
that  Niederer  and  Krusi  had  made  up  their  minds  as  early 
as  the  14th  of  the  month,  for  on  that  day  they  had  asked 
the  municipality  for  a  certificate  of  good  conduct  during 
their  residence  at  Yverdun,  either  because  they  thought 
such  a  document  was  necessary  before  they  could  live  in  the 
town  apart  from  Pestalozzi,  or  else  because  they  were  afraid 
of  Schmidt's  attacks.  Naef,  director  of  the  institiite  for 
deaf  mutes,  made  a  similar  demand  the  same  day,  although 
his  position  was  already  quite  independent  of  Pestalozzi's 
institute. 

On  the  5th  of  July,  1817,  Pestalozzi  obtained  a  promise 
from  the  municipality  that  the  gratuitous  enjoyment  of  the 
Castle  should  be  continued  for  five  years  after  his  death  to 
such  persons  as  he  would  appoint  to  succeed  him. 

Some  days  after  that,  he  asked  to  be  allowed  to  rent,  for 
purposes  of  cultivation,  a  field  of  some  four  or  five  acres  just 
outside  the  town,  and  requested  further  that  the  lease  might 
hold  good  after  his  death,  like  that  of  the  Castle.  This  fresh 
request  was  also  granted  by  the  municipality. 

The  reader  already  sees  the  object  of  these  requests ;  it 
will  be  made  still  clearer  to  him  as  we  proceed. 

Meanwhile  Pestalozzi  had  refused  to  believe  himself 
really  forsaken  by  Niederer  and  Krusi,  nor  were  his  eyes 
opened  until  he  received  a  rather  harsh  letter  from  Niederer, 
telling  him  that  his  old  coadjutors  would  keep  themselves 
aloof  so  long  as  he  chose  to  retain  Schmidt. 

The  old  man's  grief  and  anger  knew  no  bounds  ;  at  times 
he  was  almost  beside  himself,  and  it  was  feared  that  his 


324         PESTALOZZI:    HIS  LIFE  AND    WORK. 

reason  would  give  way.  Schmidt  advised  a  change  of  air  on 
the  Jura,  as  a  means  of  restoring  his  health  and  helping  him 
to  recover  from  the  effects  of  this  cruel  blow.  Pestalozzi 
accordingly  spent  a  few  weeks  in  the  village  of  Bullet,  which 
is  some  three  thousand  feet  above  the  lake  of  Neuchatel, 
and  was  at  that  time  almost  uninhabitable.  He  occupied  a 
miserable  room  in  the  cottage  of  an  old  woman,  who  could 
barely  supply  him  with  what  he  required.  But  he  breathed 
a  pure  and  bracing  air,  and  had  a  splendid  view  before  his 
eyes.  In  the  immediate  foreground  lay  the  plain  of  Yverdun, 
with  the  lakes  of  Neuchatel  and  Morat ;  then  the  Vaudese 
table-land,  with  its  infinite  variety  of  detail ;  farther  on,  the 
lake  of  Geneva,  and  on  the  horizon  the  long  chain  of  the 
Alps,  with  their  rugged,  snow-capped  peaks.  In  this  elevated 
solitude  the  old  man  at  last  found  the  repose  he  so  much 
needed ;  and  yet  it  was  a  troubled  repose,  and  full  of  grief, 
grief  which  he  poured  out  in  snatches  of  poetry  that  deserve 
to  be  preserved,  not  indeed  for  their  literary  merit,  but 
merely  as  evidence  of  the  sorrows  that  his  own  weakness 
had  brought  upon  him.  Pestalozzi,  although  a  poet  in  heart 
and  imagination,  had  rarely  written  poetry,  and  it  would  be 
difficult  to  understand  why  he  wrote  verses  at  this  time, 
if  we  did  not  know  that  for  some  time  previously  he  had 
been  working  out  a  series  of  elementary  exercises  in  lan- 
guage, to  which  he  had  often  added  rhythm  and  rhyme  as 
a  means  of  facilitating  their  study  for  the  child.  And  now 
the  same  form  presented  itself  almost  naturally  to  him  as 
he  breathed  forth  his  woes  at  Bullet. 

We  can  do  no  more  than  give  the  drift  of  a  few  of  his 
Verses : 

Happy  the  spot  where  I  can  pray  at  rest, 
Unhappy  that  where  I  do  evil. 
Sad  is  the  place  where  I  take  refuge  in  tears, 
But  terrihle  is  the  abyss  I  flee  from  ; 
And,  wishing  to  avoid  it,  I  draw  near  it, 
And  as  I  draw  near  it,  I  am  in  doubt, 
And,  in  my  doubt,  I  throw  myself  into  it  .  . 
Into  the  tomb  of  despair. 

O  !  bow  of  heaven  !  bow  of  heaven  1 
Thou  shadowest  forth  the  joys  of  the  Creator; 
Shed  on  me,  too,  thy  colours  and  soft  brightness  I 
Come,  shine  in  the  angry  tempest  of  my  life  ! 
Usher  in  a  brighter  morn  !  teutl  ine  a  Letter  day  ! 


DEATH-AGONY  OF  THE  INSTITUTE.          325 

0  !  bow  of  heaven  1  bow  of  heaven  1 
God  hath  sustained  me  in  the  days  of  storm ; 
My  soul,  give  praise  to  the  Eternal ! 
Must  I  die  before  thou  appear 
To  bring  me  the  joys  of  a  happier  day? 
Must  I  drink  to  the  dregs  the  cup  of  enmity  and  malice  ? 
Must  I  die  before  I  find  my  peace,  the  peace  I  am  seeking  ? 
I  acknowledge  my  own  faults  and  weakness, 
And  I  forgive  others  their  faults  ; 
I  forgive  them  with  love  and  tears. 
It  is  in  death  alone  that  I  shall  find  peace  ; 
The  day  of  my  death  will  be  my  happiest  day  ; 
How  beautiful  wilt  thou  be  when  thou  proclaimest  my  happier  daye, 
Shining  on  my  forgotten  tomb, 
O  bow  of  heaven  1  bow  of  heaven ! 

At  the  death  of  my  dear  companion, 

The  pure  snow  flakes  of  winter 

Fell  as  a  sweet  testimony 

Into  her  open  grave. 

And  thus,  0  bow  of  heaven ! 

Do  thou  bring  me  a  friendly  testimony 

On  the  day  of  my  death. 

God  hath  sustained  me  in  the  days  of  trouble ; 

My  soul,  give  praise  to  the  Eternal, 

For  God  Himself  dwells  in  thee, 

In  thee  is  His  temple. 

Praise  God,  0  my  soul, 

Priestess  of  the  temple  of  thy  God ! 

Neither  the  heights  of  the  earth,  nor  the  heights  of  the  heavens, 

Neither  the  sea  of  stars,  nor  the  army  of  clouds, 

Shall  pluck  from  thy  being  the  presence  of  thy  Creator. 

No  human  science,  no  worldly  honour 

Can  take  away  thy  God,  whom  thou  seest  in  thyself, 

As  thou  dost  in  the  spider  and  the  worm. 

Rest  and  mountain  air,  however,  soon  restored  the  old 
man's  strength  and  calmness,  and  he  returned  to  Yverdun. 
It  was  then  that  his  friends  tried  once  more  to  rescue  him 
from  Schmidt's  domination,  and  make  his  last  days  happy 
and  peaceful.  Jullien,  Fellenberg,  and  Charles  Hitter 
endeavoured  between  them  to  find  some  means  of  saving 
the  old  man  and  his  institute.  Pestalozzi  went  several 
times  to  Hofwyl,  often  staying  some  considerable  time.  On 
these  occasions  he  always  recovered  his  courage  and  cheer- 
fulness, and  worked  unceasingly  at  his  exercises  for  the 
elementary  teaching  of  language.  One  evening  even,  after 
walking  from  Berne  to  Hofwyl,  a  distance  of  nearly  four 
miles,  he  asked  for  a  light,  that  he  might  write,  according 


J26         PESTALOZZI:    HIS  LIFE  AND    WORK. 

to  habit,  through  the  night.  Fellenberg,  -wishing  to  spare 
the  old  man  the  noise  of  his  school,  had  found  rooms  for 
him  in  the  neighbourhood  in  the  house  of  a  Dutch  gentle- 
man, Mr.  Van  Muyden,  who  took  a  great  interest  in  all 
questions  of  education,  and  afterwards  became  a  Councillor 
of  State  in  Lausanne. 

On  the  17th  October,  1817,  after  much  discussion,  Pesta- 
lozzi  and  Fellenberg  drew  up  an  agreement  in  eighteen 
articles,  the  principal  provisions  of  which  were  as  follows  : 

A  poor-school  was  to  be  founded,  at  a  place  to  be  deter- 
mined afterwards,  according  to  the  plans  and  directions  of 
Pestalozzi.  This  school  was,  financially,  to  be  quite  inde- 
pendent of  the  institute  at  Yverdun,  which,  in  its  turn,  was 
to  be  reorganized  under  the  joint  supervision  of  Pestalozzi 
and  Fellenberg,  who  together  would  appoint  a  director  and 
the  staff  necessary  for  a  good  educational  establishment  for 
the  middle  classes.  The  institute  was  henceforth  to  be 
self-supporting,  and  any  surplus  in  the  receipts  was  to  be 
employed  for  the  admission  of  poor  children.  When  Schmidt 
was  no  longer  necessary  at  the  institute,  he  would  leave 
Yverdun,  and  come  and  direct  the  new  poor-school  under 
Pestalozzi,  who  would  provide  him  with  two  assistants.  To 
guarantee  the  existence  of  the  institute  and  poor-school, 
these  two  foundations  would  be  placed  under  the  protection 
of  a  large  Commission,  composed,  with  their  consent,  of  the 
following  friends  of  humanity  :  Zellweger,  of  Trogen ;  de 
Rougemont,  of  Neuchatel ;  May  de  la  Schadau,  of  Berne  ; 
de  Mollin,  of  Lausanne  ;  and  Father  Girard,  of  Freiburg. 
Gottlieb,  Pestalozzi's  grandson,  was  to  go  at  once  to  Hofwyl 
to  take  a  course  of  instruction  in  practical  agriculture,  and 
to  see  the  working  of  Fellenberg's  poor-school,  so  that  he 
might  be  in  a  position  to  manage  the  Neuhof  estate,  as  well 
as  the  school  which  Pestalozzi  was  anxious  to  establish 
there. 

But  Schmidt  had  made  Pestalozzi  promise  not  to  conclude 
anything  without  consulting  him ;  and  so  the  old  man, 
although  he  agreed  with  Fellenberg  on  all  the  points  of  the 
agreement,  would  not  sign  it  till  a  clause  had  been  inserted 
leaving  him  free  to  withdraw  at  the  shortest  notice. 

As  a  matter  of  fact,  Schmidt  disapproved  of  the  whole 
arrangement,  and  persuaded  Pestalozzi  that  this  agreement 
left  him  entirety  at  Fellenberg's  mercy.  The  matter,  there- 


DEATH-AGONY  OF   THE  INSTITUTE.  327 

fore,  fell  through,  the  natural  consequence  of  which  was 
that  from  this  time  the  old  man's  friends  no  longer  dared 
attempt  anything  in  his  favour. 

In  an  account  of  Pestalozzi's  last  years  that  he  afterwards 
published,  Fellenberg  relates  the  whole  of  these  negotiations 
in  detail,  with  documents  in  corroboration,  and  judges 
Schmidt  with  extreme  severity,  declaring  that  he  was 
actuated  merely  by  motives  of  personal  interest.  But  how- 
ever this  may  have  been,  we  are  strongly  of  opinion  that  a 
lasting  connection  between  Pestalozzi  and  Fellenberg  was 
no  more  possible  in  1817  that  it  had  been  in  1805.  By  the 
end  of  1817,  Jullien,  all  the  French  boys,  a  large  number 
of  other  pupils,  and  most  of  the  good  masters  had  left  the 
institute,  which  in  every  respect  was  in  a  most  deplorable 
condition. 

On  the  other  hand,  however,  the  subscription  to  Pesta- 
lozzi's works  had  met  with  extraordinary  success,  so  great 
still  was  the  sympathy  for  the  celebrated  old  man  in  many 
parts  of  Europe.  The  Emperor  of  Russia,  the  King  of 
Prussia,  and  the  King  of  Bavaria  had  each  subscribed  largely, 
and,  thanks  to  the  ability  of  Schmidt,  and  to  the  kindness 
and  care  of  the  publisher,  Gotta  of  Stuttgart,  the  author  of 
Leonard  and  Gertrude,  without  having  run  the  least  risk, 
was  the  fortunate  recipient  of  some  two  thousand  pounds. 

This  success  revived  Pestalozzi's  courage  and  hope,  but 
also,  alas !  his  illusions.  He  thought  the  moment  had  at 
last  come  for  realizing  the  dreams  of  his  life,  and  accordingly 
sent  for  his  grandson  Gottlieb,  his  sole  heir,  in  the  hope  of 
being  able  to  fit  him  for  carrying  on  his  work. 

Gottlieb,  who  had  formerly  been  a  pupil  in  the  institute 
at  Yverdun,  had  shown  so  little  taste  for  study  that  his 
grandfather  had  thought  it  better  that  he  should  learn  some 
handicraft.  He  had  therefore  become  a  tanner  at  Zurich. 

Pestalozzi's  discourse  of  the  12th  of  January.  1818,  his 
seventy-second  birthday,  is  one  of  the  most  interesting  and 
important  he  ever  made.  In  it  we  find  his  educational  and 
philanthropical  views  stated  perhaps  with  more  force  and 
clearness  than  anywhere  else  ;  all  his  projects,  plans,  and 
hopes  for  the  future  ;  and,  lastly,  his  feelings  with  regard 
to  the  various  people  he  has  about  him,  and  even  the  old 
friends  who  have  just  left  him. 

As  the  length  of  the  discourse  prevents  us  from  giving  it 


328         PESTALOZZI:    HIS  LIFE  AND    WORK. 

in  full,  we  shall  translate  those  parts  only  which  seem  to  ua 
the  most  instructive  : 

"  I  now  find  myself  in  the  position  of  a  father,  who,  seeing 
his  end  approaching,  and  being  anxious  to  prepare  his  house- 
hold, calls  his  people  around  him,  and  solemnly  opens  his 
heart  to  them  about  the  state  of  his  house,  the  projects  and 
desires  of  his  life,  and  entreats  them  not  to  disappoint  him 
in  their  efforts  for  the  realization  of  his  hopes. 

"  To-day  I  enter  on  the  seventy-third  year  of  my  life,  a 
life  which  has  always  been  rather  public  than  private.  And 
so  it  is  not  my  private  life,  my  own  personal  position,  that 
occupies  my  mind  at  this  moment ;  I  am  thinking  rather 
of  my  public  work,  for  the  continuation  of  which  after  my 
death  I  am  most  anxious  to  provide,  and  of  the  little  that 
I  have  been  able  to  do  towards  a  great  end,  the  discovery 
and  diffusion,  that  is,  of  true  principles  of  philanthropy  and 
education,  an  end  which  requires  the  earnest  co-operation  of 
all  men  devoted  to  their  country  and  humanity. 

"  Friends  !  I  feel  to-day  obliged  to  say,  and  I  say  it  with 
a  firm  and  unalterable  conviction,  that  our  part  of  the  world, 
so  far  at  least  as  education  and  the  condition  of  the  poor 
are  concerned,  has  long  been  plunged  in  a  foul  atmosphere 
of  error,  and  that  men,  in  their  attempts  to  mend  matters, 
have  employed  such  unnatural  and  artificial  means,  that 
they  have  only  succeeded  in  making  matters  worse.  This 
error  has  indeed  pervaded  the  mind,  sentiments,  and  habits 
of  men  to  such  a  degree,  that  truth  and  love  are  powerless 
against  it;  it  is  like  a  thick,  impenetrable  fog,  against 
which  the  sun  is  powerless.  I  am  aware  that  what  I  am 
now  saying  will  be  misunderstood,  but  that  will  be  only 
because  this  erroneous  habit  of  thought  has  become,  for  the 
men  of  our  century,  almost  a  second  nature.  And  just 
as  thja  inveterate  error  perverts  the  views  and  methods  of 
those  who  are  willing  to  help  the  needy,  so  it  perverts 
the  views,  sentiments,  and  aspirations  of  those  who  require 
the  help. 

"  But  I,  who  speak  to  you,  am  dead  to  the  present ;  this 
world  and  century  are  nothing  more  to  me.  I  am  possessed 
by  a  dream,  by  the  thought  of  what  the  education  of  man, 
of  the  people,  of  the  poor,  will  be,  in  a  world  shorn  of  false- 
ness and  artificiality.  And  now,  as  I  indulge  in  my  dream, 


DEATH-AGONY  OF  THE  INSTITUTE.  329 

it  inspires  me,  and  I  see  that  higher  education  of  the  soul 
as  a  tree  planted  by  the  waterside.  Behold  it,  with  its  roots, 
trunk,  branches,  and  fruit !  Whence  are  they !  See,  you 
put  a  small  kernel  in  the  ground,  and  in  that  kernel  is  the 
spirit  of  the  tree,  its  essence  and  its  life.  But  the  Father 
and  Creator  of  the  kernel,  as  of  the  fruitful  ground,  is  God, 
and  it  is  He  who  makes  the  seed  to  grow. 

"  The  seed  is  the  spirit  of  the  tree,  and  makes  a  body  for 
itself.  See  it  when  it  leaves  the  bosom  of  the  earth,  its 
mother ;  even  now  it  has  already  put  forth  its  first  roots, 
for  as  its  internal  essence  develops,  its  external  envelope 
must  disappear.  Its  inner  organic  life  has  now  passed  into 
the  root,  and  from  the  root  everything,  pith,  wood,  bark, 
and  fruit  will  come.  In  trunk,  branches,  and  twigs  it  is 
always  the  same  pith,  wood,  and  bark, — distinct  and  separate, 
yet  continuous  and  connected, — protecting,  sustaining,  and 
nourishing  each  other,  living  the  same  organic  life,  and 
developing  in  accordance  with  Nature  and  the  essence  of  the 
tree. 

"  As  the  tree  grows,  so,  too,  does  man.  Even  before  the 
child  is  born  there  are  within  him  the  invisible  germs  of 
those  tendencies  that  life  will  develop.  The  various  powers 
of  his  being  and  his  life  are  developed,  as  in  the  tree,  by 
remaining  united,  yet  distinct,  during  the  whole  course  of 
his  existence. 

"  And  just  as  the  essential  parts  of  the  tree,  animated 
by  the  invisible  spirit  of  their  physical  organism,  working 
together,  that  is,  in  the  sure  and  pre-established  harmony 
of  God,  co-operate,  though  distinct,  in  the  formation  of  the 
final  product  of-  their  power,  the  fruit ;  so,  too,  in  the  man, 
all  the  faculties  of  knowledge,  power,  and  will,  distinct  but 
united  by  the  invisible  spirit  of  the  human  organism,  work- 
ing together  in  the  Divine  harmony  of  faith  and  love, 
co-operate  to  form  that  spiritual  being  distinct  from  flesh 
and  blood,  that  eternal  witness  to  justice  and  holiness,  man 
created  in  the  image  of  God  to  become  perfect  as  his  Father 
in  heaven  is  perfect. 

"  It  is  the  spirit  that  quickeneth,  the  flesh  profiteth  nothing. 
The  spirit  of  man  is  not  in  any  particular  physical  power, 
it  is  not  in  what  we  call  his  strength,  nor  in  his  hands,  nor 
in  his  brain.  No,  his  real  and  effective  strength,  the  point 
where  his  powers  meet,  is  in  his  faith  and  love.  .  .  . 
23 


330         PESTALOZZI:    HIS  LIFE  AND   WORK. 

These  forces  of  the  heart,  faith  and  love,  do  for  immortal  man 
what  the  root  does  for  the  tree.     .     .     . 

"  But  do  not  only  look  at  the  tree  that  flourishes,  look  also 
at  that  whose  root  lights  upon  a  hard  rock,  a  burning  dry 
sand,  or  a  stagnant  pool !  Then  watch  the  root  dry  up  and 
wither,  and  mark  how  the  whole  tree  perishes  with  it! 
Thei:  examine  yourselves,  and  see  whether  the  organic 
powers  which  were  intended  to  give  you  life  are  not  decay- 
ing and  leaving  you  in  danger  of  perishing." 

After  having  developed  the  foregoing  ideas,  and  admitted 
that  the  human  organism  differs  from  the  vegetable  and 
animal  organism  in  the  possession  of  liberty  and  conscience, 
Pestalozzi  explains  that  it  is  the  part  of  education  to  en- 
courage and  direct  the  development  of  the  best  powers  of  the 
child,  as  a  gardener  encourages  and  directs  the  growth  of  a 
tree.  He  then  adds : 

"  Each  of  our  moral,  intellectual,  and  physical  powers  must 
depend  for  its  development  upon  itself  alone,  and  not  on  any 
artificial  external  influences.  Faith,  that  is,  must  proceed 
from  faith,  and  not  from  the  knowledge  and  understanding  of 
what  is  to  be  believed  ;  thought  must  proceed  from  thought, 
and  not  from  the  knowledge  and  understanding  of  what  is  to 
be  thought  or  of  the  laws  of  thought ;  love  must  proceed  from 
love,  and  not  from  the  knowledge  and  understanding  of  what 
love  is  and  of  what  deserves  to  be  loved ;  art,  too,  must  pro- 
ceed from  actual  art  and  skill,  and  not  from  endless  discus- 
sions about  them.  And  this  return  to  the  true  method  of 
Nature  for  the  development  of  our  powers,  absolutely  requires 
the  work  of  education  to  be  subordinated  to  the  knowledge 
of  the  various  laws  which  control  those  powers.  .  .  ." 

Pestalozzi  then  passes  in  review  his  whole  life,  so  far  at 
least  as  it  has  been  devoted  to  searching  for  the  means  of 
raising  the  people  by  education.  He  acknowledges  that  he 
has  always  been  too  incapable  to  succeed  in  any  of  his  enter- 
prises ;  but  experience,  which  has  taught  him  many  things, 
still  instructs  him  every  day,  and  now  he  thanks  God  for 
not  having  permitted  him  to  put  his  hand  to  the  work  before 
he  was  ready,  and  for  having  forced  him  in  this  way  to 
labour  continually.  He  brought  ruin  and  suffering  upon  him- 
self by  trying  to  establish  a  home  for  the  poor  at  Neuhof,  and 


DEATH-AGONY  OF  THE  INSTITUTE.  331 

yet  tne  memory  of  that  attempt  is  dear  to  him,  and  although 
the  property  costs  him  much  more  than  it  brings  in,  he  has 
never  been  willing  to  sell  it,  for  he  still  hopes  to  found  a 
school  for  the  poor  there,  and  is  looking  forward  to  beginning 
the  necessary  repairs  next  spring.  Farther  on  he  acknow- 
ledges that  an  institution  of  this  kind  can  in  no  way  replace 
a  home  warmed  by  the  love  of  father  and  mother,  and 
adds: 

"  The  religious  spirit  which  sheds  a  blessing  on  the 
domestic  hearth,  still  exists  in  our  midst,  but  is  without 
inner  life,  and  is  reduced  to  a  mere  reasoning  spirit  which 
does  nothing  but  discourse  on  what  is  holy  and  what  is 
Divine.  .  .  .  However,  the  blessed  spirit  of  the  true 
doctrine  of  Christ  seems  to  throw  out  new  and  deep  roots  in 
the  midst  of  the  corruption  of  our  race,  and  to  maintain  in 
thousands  of  souls  a  pure  inner  life.  It  is,  in  truth,  to  that 
alone  that  we  can  look  for  the  principles  and  power  neces- 
sary for  battling  with  the  ideas,  sentiments,  desires  and 
habits  of  our  century,  chief  cause,  as  it  seems  to  me,  of  the 
debasement  of  the  people.  It  is  by  this  means  alone  that  we 
can  resume  and  employ  beneficently  the  only  true  methods 
of  popular  and  national  education,  methods  which  God  has 
placed  in  the  home  and  maintained  from  time  immemorial 
by  the  inexhaustible  treasure  of  parental  love." 

Pestalozzi  then  asks  what  there  is  to  be  done  to  fight  the 
evil  he  has  just  described,  and  suggests  seven  chief  lines  of 
action.  He  points  out  that  it  is  neither  with  the  rich  nor 
the  poor  that  the  first  efforts  must  be  made,  but  with  the 
great  middle-class,  with  whom  success  will  be  much  easier 
than  with  the  others,  because  they  have,  in  a  measure,  pre- 
served the  habits  and  virtues  of  the  domestic  hearth.  More- 
over it  is  from  the  middle  class  that  regeneration  will  spread 
most  surely  and  easily  to  the  other  portions  of  society,  for, 
on  the  one  hand,  they  give  instructors  to  the  rich,  and  on  the 
other,  they  supply  the  poor  with  the  example  and  advice  of 
protectors,  near  enough  to  them  to  know  them  well  and  to 
be  sure  of  being  listened  to. 

It  is  because  the  institute  of  Yverdun  is  intended  for 
middle-class  children  that  Pestalozzi  attaches  such  great 
value  to  it  as  a  means  of  regeneration,  and  is  so  anxious  for 


332         PESTALOZZI:    HIS  LIFE  AND   WORK. 

its  continuance  after  his  death.  He  declares  that  he  could 
not  have  found  a  country,  town,  or  spot  more  fitted  for  his 
purpose,  and  congratulates  himself  on  the  sympathy,  facilities 
and  welcome  accorded  him  by  the  authorities  and  inhabitants 
of  Yverdun,  and  especially  by  the  educated  portion  of  the 
community.  It  is  at  Yverdun,  moreover,  that  he  has  made 
many  important  preparations,  and  it  is  at  Yverdun  that  his 
institution  must  remain.  After  having  developed  the  fore- 
going ideas  at  considerable  length,  Pestalozzi  comes  back 
once  more  to  his  doctrine  of  elementary  education,  as  being 
the  only  means  of  regenerating,  not  merely  the  poor,  but  all 
classes  of  society.  He  then  continues  : 

"Elementary  education  is  nothing  else  but  a  supreme 
return  to  the  truest  and  simplest  form  of  educational  art,  the 
education  of  the  home.  This  is  indeed  the  supreme  art. 
Its  means  are  not  special  gifts  of  knowledge  and  skill, 
like  the  watering-pots  with  which  a  gardener  waters  a 
thirsty  ground,  after  which  the  earth  dries  up  again  and 
waits  for  a  careful  hand  to  water  it  once  more  ;  no,  no  ;  the 
means  of  elementary  education  are  rather  like  a  running 
spring  which  is  always  flowing  and  never  allows  the  ground 
to  dry.  No,  no  ;  the  effects  of  true  elementary  culture  are 
not  transient,  for  it  is  they  that  set  in  action  those  powers 
of  human  nature  on  which  all  skill  and  knowledge  de- 
pend. .  .  . 

"  With  the  two  thousand  pounds  resulting  from  the  sub- 
scription, I  propose  to  form  an  inalienable  capital,  the  annual 
interest  of  which  will  be  perpetually  employed  as  follows : 

"  1.  To  continue  experiments  in  pursuit  of  ever  simpler 
means  for  elementary  teaching  in  the  home. 

"2.  To  train  in  this  spirit  and  for  this  purpose,  proper 
masters  and  mistresses. 

"  3.  To  found  one  or  several  model  schools  for  the  instruc- 
tion of  children  according  to  the  principles  indicated  above. 

"  4.  To  continue  the  search  for  the  most  suitable  means  of 
regenerating  domestic  education  among  the  people. 

"  Now  I  have  done  my  part  according  to  my  strength,  and 
have  deposited  my  mite  on  the  altar  of  my  country  and  of 
humanity.  But  my  age  tells  me  that  my  personal  influence 
cannot  last  much  longer,  for  which  reason  I  shall  do  all  that 
is  necessary  to  strengthen  my  establishment  by  outside  sup- 


DEATH-AGONY  OF  THE  INSTITUTE.          333 

port.  I  shall  address  myself  to  de  Rougemont,  of  Neuchatel ; 
Mollin,  of  Lausanne ;  Doxat,  of  Turin ;  and  Constan9on,  of 
Yverdun ;  I  am,  indeed,  already  in  communication  with  the 
two  last  concerning  my  financial  arrangements,  and  shall  ask 
these  gentlemen  to  receive  all  moneys  resulting  from  the  sub- 
scription, invest  it  safely,  and  pay  the  interest  each  year  to 
the  persons  appointed  by  me  to  carry  on  my  work. 

I  am  well  aware  that  the  amount  produced  by  the  subscrip- 
tion is  quite  inadequate  for  such  a  purpose ;  but  I  look  upon 
our  past  labours  and  experiments  as  the  real  capital  of  my 
foundation,  and  I  should  hope,  too,  that  the  mite  I  add  will 
not  remain  quite  alone.  By  the  work  of  my  life,  and  by 
that  of  Niederer,  Krusi,  Mieg,  Jullien,  de  Muralt,  Henning, 
and  many  other  friends,  most  of  whom  are  now  far  away,  the 
interest  of  a  great  number  of  men  has  been  aroused  in  favour 
of  our  enterprise,  the  importance  of  which  is  generally  felt.  I 
hope,  therefore,  that  a  large  number  of  my  contemporaries  will 
take  part  in  it,  and  that  my  small  contribution  will  disappear 
under  the  abundance  of  their  gifts." 

Pestalozzi  then  announces  that  he  will  work  to  the  end  of 
his  days  to  increase  his  contribution  ;  that  he  will  leave  the 
subscription  open,  and  add  to  his  works  many  important 
manuscripts,  as  yet  incomplete  ;  and  further  that  he  is  going 
to  begin  at  once  the  publication  of  a  journal,  entitled,  Journal 
of  the  Foundations  of  Yverdun.  In  short,  he  will  no  longer 
consider  the  institute  of  Yverdun  as  his  private  property,  but 
as  having  an  independent  moral  personality  of  its  own.  He 
also  points  out  that  the  income  of  the  institute  will  be  very 
small  during  the  first  few  years. 

Pestalozzi  refers  once  more  to  his  attempt  to  found  a  school 
for  the  poor  at  Neuhof  fifty  years  before,  and  regrets  that  his 
wife,  to  whose  devotion  he  then  owed  so  much,  is  not  still 
living  to  see  him  resume  the  execution  of  this  project.  He 
also  thanks  God  for  having  consoled  his  old  age  by  making  it 
possible  for  him  to  do  this,  and  announces  that  he  is  on  the 
point  of  setting  to  work  ;  he  wishes  it,  however,  to  be  known 
that  the  new  asylum  of  Neuhof  will  merely  bring  help  to  a 
few  unfortunates  who  are  suffering,  and  cannot  wait ;  whereas 
the  entire  realization  of  his  ideal  can  only  come  later,  and  as 
the  result  of  the  work  which  will  be  carried  on  in  his  founda- 
tions at  Yverdun. 


3J4         PESTALOZZI:    HIS  LIFE  AND    WORK. 

Further  on,  Pestalozzi  points  out  that  in  the  middle  classes 
there  are  many  families  who  cannot  pay  the  price  of  their 
children's  schooling,  and  that  it  is  precisely  from  these  child- 
ren, brought  up  in  poverty  and  economy,  that  most  is  to  be 
expected  for  the  success  of  his  undertaking.  For  that  reason 
he  has  made  up  his  mind  to  admit  them  into  the  institute  at 
reduced  prices,  provided  only  that  their  moral  nature  is  good 
and  that  they  are  thoroughly  intelligent.  Such  children  are 
not  accustomed  to  have  wine  and  meat  every  day,  nor  will 
they  have  them  at  the  institute  ;  there  will  be  a  separate  table 
for  them,  but  the  moral  equality  will  not  be  affected.  Pes- 
talozzi himself  will  eat  with  them,  and  he  will  take  care  that 
they  do  not  regret  the  other  table. 

After  having  thus  exposed  all  his  projects,  Pestalozzi 
addresses  his  grandson  Gottlieb,  who  is  once  more  present, 
after  an  absence  of  four  years.  He  thanks  him  for  returning, 
and  for  saying  that  he  is  ready  to  devote  his  life  to  his  grand- 
father's work)  and  to  do  his  best  to  be  like  him,  and  that  he 
will  be  content  with  the  fortune  left  by  his  grandmother,  and 
never  regret  that  which  has  been  given  to  the  foundation. 
Pestalozzi  praises  him  for  having  thus  chosen  the  good  part ; 
and  says  that  he  now  feels  free  to  make  over  everything  he 
possesses  to  his  work,  since  he  leaves  his  grandson  a  vocation 
that  is  worth  more  than  all  the  gold  in  the  world.  He  in- 
spires Gottlieb  with  courage,  gives  him  advice,  and  tells  him 
that  he  will  find  Schmidt  a  strong  and  devoted  support.  After 
reminding  his  hearers  that  Schmidt  alone  had  saved  and 
sustained  him,  he  proceeds  to  speak  of  him  in  terms  of  the 
highest  praise,  denying,  however,  that  he  has  ever  made  an 
idol  of  him.  Every  one  has  his  faults,  and  Schmidt  has  his ; 
Pestalozzi,  indeed,  knows  them  well,  for  they  often  cause 
him  pain,  but  Schmidt  has  so  many  of  the  qualities  that  are 
wanting  in  the  old  man,  that  it  would  be  difficult  to  find 
two  men  more  different.  Schmidt  brings  Pestalozzi  power, 
perseverance,  and  absolute  devotedness. 

Then  he  enters  upon  the  divergencies  of  views  which  have 
manifested  themselves  in  his  house,  and  the  fatal  dissensions 
which  followed.  The  explanation  he  gives  is  as  follows : 

In  the  first  days  of  his  association  with  his  coadjutors, 
Pestalozzi  seemed  to  see  that  the  world  wished  what  he 
wished,  and  loved  what  he  loved  ;  the  Government  supported 
him,  the  public  admired  all  he  did,  often  even  before  he  himself 


DEATH-AGONY  OF  THE  INSTITUTE.          335 

quite  knew  what  he  wanted  to  do.  Full  of  blind  trust,  he 
thought  everything  easy,  and  so  allowed  himself  to  be  drawn 
into  a  complicated  undertaking,  without  reflecting  that  he 
was  incapable  of  managing  a  numerous  staff,  and  without 
remarking  that  the  truth  accepted  by  all  his  coadjutors  was 
taking  a  different  development  with  each  of  them,  because  they 
were  all  free  to  work  in  their  own  way  and  follow  their  own 
individuality.  When  Pestalozzi  perceived  this,  he  thought 
it  better  to  shut  his  eyes  to  it,  and  his  negligence  in  this  re- 
spect lasted  for  many  years,  in  fact,  till  confusion  and  anarchy 
were  threatening  the  success  of  his  work.  Then  at  last  he 
felt  the  need  of  ruling,  and,  in  his  weakness,  looking  about 
for  help,  he  presently  found  a  sure  support.  In  this  way  he 
came  into  collision  with  his  collaborators,  who  all  felt  that 
their  own  particular  views  were  the  only  true  ones. 

Pestalozzi  recognizes  that  he  is  himself  the  cause  of  this 
evil,  and  blames  nobody  ;  at  the  same  time  it  seems  to  him 
that  his  friends  might  rise  above  this  divergence  of  ideas,  and 
work  together  for  an  object  which  is  both  great,  just,  and 
holy.  He  has,  to-day,  surmounted  many  obstacles,  and  is  at 
last  in  possession  of  the  means  for  realizing  the  projects  which 
have  occupied  his  life,  but  he  still  needs  capable  and  devoted 
men  at  his  side  to  support  him. 

He  continues  thus : 

"  I  turn  first  to  you,  Niederer  and  Krusi.  Now  that  I  am 
laying  the  foundations  of  a  work  that  our  grandchildren  will 
bless,  it  is  to  you  I  call ;  become  once  more  my  sons  and  help 
me  in  this  undertaking.  Some  day,  when  our  human  sorrows 
have  been  long  forgotten,  and  our  flesh  long  hidden  in  the 
tomb,  numbers  of  happy  poor,  profiting  from  our  labours,  and 
blessing  all  who  took  part  in  the  work,  will  bless  you  also  as 
members  of  this  holy  association.  And  you  are,  indeed,  asso- 
ciated with  this  work  for  the  salvation  of  the  poor,  Niederer 
and  Krusi ;  for  you  have  spent  a  great  part  of  your  lives  in 
endeavouring  to  make  it  possible.  I  have  not,  it  is  true,  suc- 
ceeded as  I  could  have  wished,  nor  you  either;  but  without 
you  nothing  would  have  been  possible,  and  the  service  is  great 
that  your  lives  have  rendered  to  my  undertakings.  It  is  the 
Lord's  hand  that  has  guided  you  towards  my  aim,  my  aim 
which  is  also  yours.  Forget,  then,  what  is  behind  you,  and 
march  forward  with  me  to  our  common  aim.  Embrace  to-day 


336         PESTALOZZI:    HIS  LIFE  AND    WORK. 

the  cause  of  our  foundation,  and  let  us  unite  once  more  in 
purity  and  hope. 

"  Niederer,  I  am  laying  to-day  the  first  stone  of  an  edifice 
which,  small  at  first,  may  some  day  become  the  great  temple 
of  education  as  you  yourself  conceive  it,  and  which,  with 
God's  blessing,  is  likely  to  realize  your  highest  aspirations. 
Niederer,  I  am  incapable,  from  the  very  nature  of  my 
mind,  of  teaching  men  the  truth  as  I  feel  it,  and  so  I  ap- 
proach my  end  by  the  heart  only.  But  this  is  not  enough, 
and  I  need  the  help  of  men  like  you,  who  have  the  power  of 
seeing  truth  as  a  connected  whole,  a  power  I  do  not  possess. 
Have  we  not  all  different  talents,  Niederer  ?  Recognizing 
yours,  we  feel  that  we  need  it  to  make  our  truth  into  a  science, 
and  show  the  thinkers  and  teachers  of  the  world  that  it  is  in 
perfect  harmony  with  faith  in  Jesus  Christ.  We  recognize, 
too,  that  by  your  efforts  in  this  direction  you  are  satisfying 
the  highest  need  of  our  time,  and  rendering  a  true  service  to 
humanity.  And,  .Niederer,  we  honour  you  for  striving,  in 
your  teaching,  to  free  the  human  will  from  the  power  of  the 
flesh,  an  aim  which  must  always  remain  the  essential  aim  of 
education.  We  have  witnessed  the  success  of  your  efforts 
upon  a  great  mimber  of  the  noblest  of  our  children,  and  at 
this  solemn  hour,  in  thanking  you  for  what  you  have  done,  we 
entreat  you  not  to  deprive  our  establishment  of  your  precious 
influence,  either  now  or  after  my  death. 

"  And  you,  too,  dear  Krusi,  think,  I  implore  you,  of  the  old 
days,  and  believe  that  my  friendship  is  unchanged.  We  still 
prize  your  goodness  and  kindness,  and  are  most  anxious  that 
your  heart  should  once  more  be  ours.  Think  of  the  vast 
amount  of  good  to  result  from  the  means  at  present  in  our 
hands.  We  once  more  ask  your  help  in  our  common  work 
and  for  our  common  happiness.  At  the  moment  of  setting 
my  house  in  order,  Krusi,  to  go  in  peace  to  that  place  where 
all  the  passions  of  life  are  ended,  and  all  its  difficulties  and 
illusions  lost  in  God's  soft  light,  at  this  solemn  moment  I  beg 
you  to  bring  your  whole  energy  back  to  the  aid  of  this  holy 
and  all-important  work. 

"  I  address  myself  to  you,  too,  my  dear  Lange  ;  you  brought 
me  help  at  a  time  when  I  was  in  urgent  need,  and  when  my 
enterprise  was  struggling  between  life  and  death.  .  .  . 
Such  hours  of  salvation  are  sacred,  and  inspire  the  truest  and 
deepest  gratitude.  Join  us,  then,  in  founding  this  new 


DEATH-AGONY   OF  THE  INSTITUTE.          337 

association,  and  become  one  of  the  leaders  of  our  institute, 
destined  now  to  become  far  more  important  than  it  has  ever 
been.  My  friend,  you  are  rejoining  my  establishment  at  a 
time  when  it  is  no  longer  anything  but  a  moral  personality, 
solemnly  consecrated  to  the  poor,  and  unable  to  offer  any 
pecuniary  advantage  to  those  who  work  for  it. 

"  And  you,  too,  Schmidt !  You  have  renounced  your  rights 
and  interests  not  only  for  the  present  but  for  the  future.  But 
I  will  not  say  any  more  about  you  now,  for  on  several  points 
where  I  should  but  be  expressing  my  inmost,  convictions,  I 
might  not  be  believed.  Continue  only  to  do  what  you  have 
done  hitherto,  and,  though  you  have  been  misunderstood,  still 
labour  for  me  and  my  house  with  the  strength  you  have 
already  devoted  to  the  work.  All  opinions,  no  matter  how 
obstinately  adhered  to,  will  finally  be  overcome  by  persever- 
ing action. 

"  I  now  address  myself  to  you,  my  colleagues,  and  to  all 
whom  it  shall  please  God  to  send  to  us.  I  implore  you  all 
to  continue  to  take  an  active,  affectionate  and  increasing 
interest  in  this  my  life-work,  for  which  to-day  God  is  giving 
me  such  help  as  may  prove  to  be  a  fruitful  source  of  blessing 
for  our  country  and  humanity.  Let  us  earnestly  look  to  the 
duties  thus  imposed  upon  us  by  Providence. 

"  Friends,  the  essential  aim  and  first  duty  of  our  associa- 
tion is  not  a  new  method  of  education,  in  spite  of  the  fact 
that  the  latter,  by  means  of  faith  and  love,  is  to  bring  about 
a  realization  of  the  spirit  of  Christianity  ;  no,  the  chief  aim 
and  first  duty  of  our  association  is  to  take  the  most  conscien- 
tious care  of  the  children  entrusted  to  us,  that  we  may  both 
carry  out  what  we  have  promised  and  justify  the  hopes  we 
have  raised.  ...  I  have  now  more  courage  than  ever, 
for  I  know  that  I  shall  not  die  till  I  have  done  all  that  is 
necessary  to  ensure  my  children  being  at  every  moment  of 
ihe  day  under  the  eyes  of  men  working  for  their  own  salva- 
tion in  fear  and  trembling,  and  working  for  the  children's 
as  for  their  own.  Friends,  I  thank  you  for  all  you  are  doing 
in  our  midst  for  art  and  science,  and  for  the  help  you  are  to 
me  in  the  management  of  the  establishment.  But  what  I 
particularly  want  to  ask  of  you — and  this  is  our  holiest  and 
highest  obligation — is  that  you  will  earnestly  watch  over  our 
children,  praying  both  with  them  and  for  them.  Friends  and 
brothers,  in  this  solemn  hour,  when  I  am  setting  my  house  in 


338         PESTALOZZI;    HIS  LIFE  AND    WORK. 

order  at  the  entrance  of  the  valley  of  death,  a  valley,  how- 
ever, which  leads  to  resurrection,  I  beg  of  you  not  to  judge 
of  me  by  the  weakness  of  my  life,  but  to  remember  my  words. 
You  know  now  with  what  feelings  I  call  you  all  to  this  holy 
alliance.  Love  one  another,  as  Christ  loved  us.  Love  suffereth 
long,  and  is  kind ;  love  envieth  not ;  love  vaunteth  not  itself, 
is  not  puffed  up,  doth  not  behave  itself  unseemly,  seeketh 
not  its  own,  is  not  provoked,  taketh  not  account  of  evil ;  re- 
joiceth  not  in  unrighteousness,  but  rejoice th  with  the  truth; 
beareth  all  things,  believeth  all  things,  hopeth  all  things, 
endureth  all  things.  Friends  and  brothers,  do  good  to  those 
who  hate  you  ;  bless  those  who  curse  you  ;  heap  coals  of  fire 
on  the  head  of  your  enemies.  Let  not  the  sun  go  down  upon 
your  wrath.  "When "you  bring  an  offering  to  the  altar,  first 
be  reconciled  with  your  brother  and  then  bring  your  offering. 
Let  there  be  no  hardness  among  you,  even  towards  those  who 
do  us  wrong.  Let  all  human  hardness  disappear  before  the 
holiness  of  our  Christian  faith.  Let  none  of  you  excuse  hard- 
ness towards  those  who  have  done  wrong.  Let  no  one  say 
that  Jesus  did  not  love  the  unjust  and  the  wrongdoers.  He 
loved  them  with  a  Divine  love  ;  it  was  for  them  that  He  died. 
It  was  not  the  just,  but  sinners  that  He  called  to  repentance. 
He  did  not  find  the  sinner  humble  and  faithful,  but  made  him 
BO  by  His  own  faith  and  humility.  It  was,  indeed,  by  His 
Divine  service  in  His  most  lowly  position  that  He  overcame 
the  pride  of  the  sinner,  and  inspired  him  with  the  Divine  faith 
and  love  with  which  His  own  soul  overflowed.  Friends  and 
brothers,  if  we  do  likewise,  and  love 'each  other  as  Christ 
loved  us,  we  shall  then  be  able  to  surmount  every  obstacle 
that  separates  us  from  the  aim  of  our  life,  and  found  the 
happiness  of  our  house  on  the  eternal  rock  on  which  Grod 
Himself  founded  the  happiness  of  humanity  in  Jesus  Christ." 

This  discourse  is  interesting  and  instructive  in  many 
ways;  full  of  Pestalozzi  himself,  it  yet  bears  traces  here  and 
there  of  Schmidt's  influence.  We  should  like  to  have  given 
it  in  full,  but  in  its  first  edition,  it  filled  no  less  than  a  hun- 
dred and  thirteen  pages.  In  Cotta's  edition,  however,  there 
were  many  long  and  important  omissions,  omissions  which 
can  only  be  attributed  to  Schmidt.  It  no  longer  contains,  for 
instance,  the  urgent  appeal  to  Niederer  and  Krusi,  which, 
as  we  shall  see,  remained  without  effect.  As  a  general  rale, 


DEATH-AGONY  OF  THE  INSTITUTE.  339 

Pestalozzi's  real  thoughts  must  be  looked  for  in  the  first 
edition  of  his  works,  which,  unfortunately,  is  no  longer  to 
be  found.  Seyffarth'a  edition,  however,  gives  the  original 
text,  together  with  most  of  the  subsequent  alterations. 

Fellenberg  relates,  in  his  book  already  referred  to,  that 
on  the  12th  of  January,  1818,  immediately  after  the  old 
man  had  finished  his  discourse,  Schmidt  announced  that, 
though  he  did  not  approve  of  Pestalozzi's  gift,  he  was 
anxious  to  associate  himself  unreservedly  with  his  founda- 
tion, and  would  therefore  make  over  to  him  his  whole  fortune, 
consisting  of  about  two  hundred  and  forty  pounds.  Fellen- 
berg asserts  that  Schmidt  did  not  really  mean  this ;  that  it 
was,  moreover,  merely  for  the  purpose  of  increasing  the 
subscriptions  that  he  had  induced  Pestalozzi  to  announce 
his  plans  for  a  new  foundation ;  and  that  two  years  later, 
when  Gottlieb  became  his  brother-in-law,  it  was  also  he  who 
compelled  the  old  man  to  declare  that  he  was  not  in  a 
position  to  carry  out  the  engagements  into  which  he  had 
entered ;  but  as  it  is  known  that  Fellenberg  greatly  disliked 
Schmidt,  and  judged  him  very  harshly,  such  a  statement 
must  be  received  with  the  extremest  caution. 

The  poor-school,  however,  remained  Pestalozzi's  favourite 
project ;  he  was  always  coming  back  to  the  idea,  and  forgot, 
in  this  dream  of  his  youth,  the  far  greater  plans  which  he 
had  only  lately  conceived.  He  was  very  anxious  to  at  last 
take  some  practical  steps  in  this  direction;  but  Schmidt,  who 
felt  that  there  was  enough  to  be  done  already,  offered  a 
strenuous  opposition.  The  old  man  insisted,  and,  in  spite  of 
Schmidt's  obstinate  resistance,  returned  incessantly  to  the 
attack.  An  absurd  episode  of  the  struggle  has  been  related 
by  an  entirely  reliable  eye-witness — a  lady  who,  in,  1818, 
was  living,  a  child  of  thirteen,  in  the  Castle  at  Yverdun,  and 
who  in  1874  was  still  alive  in  Burgdorf.  She  tells  how 
Pestalozzi  one  day  earnestly  begged  Schmidt  to  allow  him 
to  found  his  poor-school;  how  the  latter,  refusing  to  listen, 
turned  his  back  and  ran  away,  and  how  the  old  man  pursued 
him  for  some  time,  and  at  last,  angry  at  being  unable  to 
catch  him,  threw  his  shoes  at  him. 

And  yet  this  time  it  was  Pestalozzi  who  got  the  upper 
hand ;  for  in  this  same  year,  1818,  the  poor-school  was 
opened  at  Clendy,  a  hamlet  just  outside  Yverdun,  in  the 
house  afterwards  occupied  by  Daulte's  boarding-school.  It 


340         PESTALOZZI:    HIS  LIFE  AND    WORK. 

began  with  twelve  poor  children,  of  both  sexes,  most  of  them 
orphans,  or  forsaken  by  their  parents.  In  spite  of  his 
seventy-two  years,  the  old  man  devoted  himself  to  them 
with  the  same  activity,  the  same  zeal,  the  same  love  as  in 
his  youth,  and,  what  seems  hardly  credible,  with  the  same 
wonderful  success  as  had  crowned  his  first  efforts  at  Neuhof, 
Stanz,  and  Burgdorf.  Such  is  the  power  that  an  education 
which  conforms  to  the  laws  of  human  nature  has  over  the 
heart,  that  this  man,  absent-minded,  awkward  and  incapable 
in  practical  life,  and  entirely  without  external  advantages, 
was  able,  as  though  by  enchantment,  not  only  to  gain  the 
attention  and  affection  of  the  children  by  whom  he  was 
surrounded,  but  to  make  them  eager  to  learn. 

In  a  few  months  the  number  of  the  children  at  Clendy 
had  risen  to  thirty,  and  marvellous  progress  had  been  made. 
To  give  some  idea  of  the  school,  we  will  translate  the 
account  given  by  Professor  Heussler,  one  of  Pestalozzi's  best 
biographers : 

"  Children  of  five  a^id  six  years  old  joyfully  spent  hours 
together  at  exercises  in  number  and  form,  and  even  still 
younger  children  learned  something  from  merely  being 
present  at  the  lessons.  Some  were  so  zealous  that  they 
needed  restraining  rather  than  encouraging.  The  best 
scholars  were  soon  set  to  teach  others,  which  they  did  well 
and  gladly.  Winter  and  summer,  day  and  night,  they 
would  run  off  to  Grandson,  a  village  in  the  neighbourhood 
of  Yverdun,  to  give  lessons  to  people  older  than  them- 
selves, often  sitting  up  a  part  of  the  night.  At  Yverdun 
their  teaching  was  preferred  to  that  of  some  of  the  masters. 
'They  know,'  it  was  said,  'how  to  give  instruction  to  the 
children  without  letting  them  feel  that  they  are  expected 
to  learn  anything,  and  often  they  seem  to  be  drawing  the 
knowledge  from  the  very  children  they  are  teaching.' " 

This  fresh  success  excited  fresh  admiration,  and  people 
came  from  all  sides  to  see  the  new  school  at  Clendy.  The 
English  were  especially  enthusiastic,  as  the  Germans  and 
French  had  been  previously.  They  even  encouraged  the  old 
man  to  think  that  England  might  be  won  over  to  his  system 
of  education,  and  asked  him  to  receive  at  Clendy  a  certain 
number  of  rich  children,  who  would  pay  for  their  instruction, 


DEATH-AGONY  OF  THE  INSTITUTE.          341 

and  afterwards  carry  his  method  across  the  Channel.  Pesta- 
lozzi  was  weak  enough  to  consent,  and  the  character  of  his 
institution  soon  changed.  The  teaching  became  less  ele- 
mentary and  more  scientific,  English  was  studied,  and  at 
the  same  time  the  internal  arrangements  lost  something  of 
their  original  simplicity. 

It  was  then  that  Schmidt,  who  had  only  reluctantly  con- 
sented to  the  foundation  of  a  poor-school,  cleverly  took 
advantage  of  this  change  in  its  character  to  prevent  its 
continuation.  In  view  of  the  success  that  the  scholars  had 
obtained  in  teaching,  he  advised  Pestalozzi  to  turn  it  into  a 
training  school,  and  transfer  it  to  the  Castle,  where  all  the 
necessary  means  of  instruction  were  ready  to  hand.  In  a 
pamphlet  published  in  1820,  entitled,  A  Word  on  the  State 
of  my  Pedagogical  Labours  and  the  Organization  of  my 
Institute,  Pestalozzi  himself  admits  that  this  advice  was 
given  him  by  Schmidt. 

But  the  idea  of  uniting  the  two  establishments  in  the 
Castle  already  existed  in  the  spring  of  1819,  as  is  clear  from 
a  printed  leaflet,  which  was  freely  circulated  in  Yverdun 
and  the  neighbourhood.  This  leaflet  was  written  in  French, 
signed  by  Pestalozzi,  and  dated  the  26th  of  May,  1819 ;  it 
ran  as  follows : 

"For  the  fifteen  years  that  I  have  been  settled  in  this 
town,  my  educational  establishment  has  been  freely  open  to 
everybody  from  morning  till  night,  not  indeed  without 
certain  inconvenient  results,  which  were,  however,  not 
entirely  insupportable,  and  to  which  I  have  submitted  in 
consideration  of  the  circumstances.  But  these  circumstances 
having  now  in  part  changed,  this  easy  access  can  no  longer 
continue,  at  any  rate  to  the  same  extent.  And  so,  although 
it  is  part  of  my  plan  to  act  openly,  and  although  I  desire 
nothing  better  than  to  make  my  efforts  and  experiments 
known  to  all  who  are  interested  in  education,  I  cannot  help 
begging  those  who  may  wish  to  see  my  institute  at  Clendy, 
to  leave  word  first  at  the  office  of  the  Castle,  so  that  a  con- 
venient hour  may  be  fixed  for  their  visit. 

•'  As  the  children  of  the  new  establishment  form  rather 
a  family  than  a  school,  and  take  part  in  the  domestic  work 
of  the  house,  they  are  no  more  prepared  to  receive  visits 
from  strangers  at  any  moment  than  any  other  family.  As, 


342          PESTALOZZI:   HIS  LIFE  AND    WORK. 

too,  it  is  my  duty  to  fit  these  children  for  their  ultimate 
duties  as  quickly  as  possible,  I  am  obliged  to  observe  the 
strictest  economy  in  the  employment  of  their  time.  The 
results  of  their  education  will,  please  God,  soon  be  visible 
in  the  institute  of  the  Castle,  and  I  shall  be  in  a  position, 
not  only  to  carry  out  on  a  much  larger  scale  what  is  being 
done  at  Clendy  by  the  children  themselves,  but  also  to  open 
a  course  of  lessons  in  those  parts  of  the  method  already 
perfected,  for  persons  not  attached  to  the  institute  of  the 
Castle,  lessons  to  which  the  most  advanced  children  of  the 
institute  of  Clendy  will  be  admitted,  and  in  some  of  which 
they  will  be  employed.  There  will  shortly  be  lessons  in 
the  English  language,  for  instance,  given  at  the  Castle  by 
Englishmen,  and  not  only  to  men,«but  to  women,  if  there 
are  any  who  desire  it.  Some  Englishmen  are  coming  next 
summer  to  study  certain  branches  of  the  method,  and  I  will 
willingly  grant  permission  to  other  persons  to  attend  the 
lessons  they  will  give.  The  public  may  rest  satisfied  that 
I  shall  in  no  wise  slacken  in  my  efforts  for  the  improvement 
of  education ;  but  though  I  am  perfectly  ready  to  put  myself 
at  the  service  of  all  who  take  a  real  interest  in  my  work, 
nobody  can  be  offended  if  I  ask  that  my  two  institutes  may 
be  spared  such  visits  as  have  no  other  motive  but  curiosity, 
and  only  uselessly  waste  my  time  and  that  of  the  children 
entrusted  to  my  care."  x 

It  is  a  very  great  pity  that  Pestalozzi  should  have  put  his 
name  to  this  document,  which  aimed,  it  is  true,  at  doing 
what  was  really  necessary  and  ought  to  have  been  done  long 
before,  but  which  at  the  same  time  degenerates  into  a  sort 
of  advertisement  in  which  we  no  longer  recognize  the  noble- 
hearted  educational  reformer. 

In  July  of  that  same  year,  the  institute  of  Clendy  was 
united  with  that  of  Yverdun  in  the  Castle,  the  young  girls 
being  installed  in  the  second  storey  of  the  north  wing,  in 
the  rooms  formerly  occupied  by  Pestalozzi  and  his  wife.  At 
the  same  time  various  repairs  were  carried  out  in  the  Castle, 
several  new  rooms  being  built  in  the  towers,  and  fire-places 
supplied  to  those  rooms  that  were  without  them. 

On  the  23rd  of  July,  1819,  the  Yverdun  municipality, 
having  to  communicate  with  Pestalozzi  concerning  the 
repairs,  took  advantage  of  the  occasion  to  let  him  know 


DEATH-AGONY  OF  THE  INSTITUTE.          343 

that  they  regretted  this  fusion  of  the  two  schools,  and  that 
public  opinion  did  not  at  all  approve  of  young  people  of 
different  sexes  being  brought  together  in  the  same  building. 

The  Clendy  poor-school  had  only  lasted  a  year,  but  it  had 
brought  the  old  man  one  more  taste  of  joy.  In  these  last 
days,  days  embittered  by  disappointment  and  failure,  it  had 
shone  for  a  moment  brightly  and  serenely,  as  though  in 
answer  to  the  desire  he  had  expressed  at  Bullet  for  a  rain- 
bow to  shine  upon  his  tomb. 

This  last  success,  short-lived  as  it  was,  was  not  without 
important  results  for  humanity.  The  little  children,  who 
were  assembled  at  Clendy,  amused,  occupied  and  instructed 
by  the  rational,  gentle  and  paternal  discipline  of  Pestalozzi, 
furnished  the  model  of  one  of  the  most  valuable  educational 
institutions  of  our  century.  Speaking  of  this  in  his  Remi- 
niscences, Professor  Vulliemin  says : 

"  The  effect  of  Pestalozzi's  action  has  already  lasted  longer 
than  his  institute,  and  longer  than  he  himself,  nor  will  it 
cease  for  a  long  time  to  come;  for  though  the  flower  and  fruit 
have  disappeared,  the  seed  has  been  scattered  over  the  globe. 
There  is  no  new  book  on  education  in  which  Pestalozzi's 
name  does  not  occupy  a  place  of  honour.  Think,  too,  of  the 
mothers  taught  by  him  to  give  increased  care  and  attention 
to  their  children's  early  years,  and  of  the  schools  that  are 
the  better  for  his  influence.  As  for  the  infant  schools,  which 
nowadays  exist  everywhere,  it  was  he  who  originated  thenv 
in  a  manner  which  I  myself  saw,  and  will  now  describe. 

"  The  Yverdun  institute  was  drawing  near  its  end,  when 
Pestalozzi,  at  the  age  of  seventy-two,  conceived  the  idea  of 
returning  to  his  earliest  interests,  and  founding  outside  the 
institute  a  school  for  poor  children.  You  know  the  hamlet 
of  Clendy,  on  the  shore  of  the  lake  to  the  east  of  Yverdun. 
It  was  there  that  I  saw  him  resume  his  first  efforts,  with  the 
same  devotion,  the  same  youthful  enthusiasm,  and  with  even 
a  purer  faith  ;  there  that  I  saw  him  obtain  the  same  suc- 
cesses, and  split  on  the  same  rocks.  Clendy  fell,  as,  before 
very  long,  the  great  institute  itself  was  to  fall.  But  there 
was  a  man  there  who  had  taken  part  in  the  short-lived 
enterprise,  a  man  of  Christian  spirit  and  enlightened  under- 
standing. This  man,  who  was  an  Englishman,  by  name 
Greaves,  carried  the  ideas  he  had  gathered  at  Clendy  back 


344        -PESTALOZZT:    HIS  LIFE  AND    WORK. 

to  England,  where  they  took  root,  and  became  the  origin  of 
infant  schools.  From  England  these  schools  returned  to  us, 
first  to  Geneva,  then  to  Nyon,  then  everywhere.  We  had 
not  understood  Pestalozzi;  but  when  his  methods  came  back 
from  England,  though  they  had  lost  something  of  their 
original  spirit,  their  meaning  and  application  were  clear." 

The  year  1820  was  another  time  of  illusions  and  dreams 
for  Pestalozzi.  He  had  brought  together  in  the  Castle  rich 
and  poor,  boys  and  girls,  an  elementary  class  for  little  chil- 
dren, a  school  and  a  training  college.  The  poorer  children, 
who  were  admitted  out  of  charity  and  paid  little  or  nothing, 
lived  more  simply  than  the  rich,  and  during  the  hours  of 
recreation,  when  the  others  were  enjoying  themselves,  took 
part  in  the  domestic  work.  As  a  general  rule,  it  was  out 
of  these  poorer  children  that  the  future  schoolmasters  and 
schoolmistresses  were  to  be  made. 

Schmidt  had  probably  only  consented  to  this  amalgamation 
from  motives  of  economy,  but  to  Pestalozzi  it  meant  a  new 
and  important  condition  of  success  for  his  work.  In  order 
to  get  others  to  share  his  opinion  in  this  matter,  he  pub- 
lished the  pamphlet  already  referred  to,  entitled,  A  Word  on 
the  State  of  my  Pedagogical  Labours,  etc.,  which  begins  thus  : 

"  In  acquainting  the  public  to-day  with  the  new  organiza- 
tion of  my  establishment,  I  find  myself  compelled,  on  the  one 
hand,  to  say  a  few  words  as  to  my  previous  efforts  in  the 
cause  of  education,  and  on  the  other,  to  give  a  few  general 
explanations  as  to  what  I  feel  able  and  bound  to  do  for  the 
purpose  of  consolidating  my  work,  and  assuring  its  con- 
tinuation after  my  death." 

After  reminding  his  readers  that  the  aim  of  his  earlier 
labours  was  to  comfort  and  raise  the  people  by  education, 
and  after  admitting  that  he  lacked  the  necessary  strength 
and  capacity  when  he  founded  his  institute  of  Burgdorf,  he 
speaks  of  the  dissension  with  which  his  own  weakness  has 
surrounded  him  as  being  the  chief  cause  of  the  defects 
which  have  ruined  his  work.  But  to-day  these  troubles 
have  disappeared,  and  all  his  collaborators  are  harmoniously 
walking  in  the  path  that  leads  straight  to  his  end.  Nor  ia 
the  progress  of  the  institute  any  longer  hampered  by  the 


DEATH-AGONY  OF  THE  INSTITUTE.          345 

financial  difficulties  from  which  it  has  long  suffered.  But 
as,  notwithstanding  all  this,  the  public  is  not  yet  able  to 
appreciate  the  bearing  of  his  labours,  he  concludes  that 
their  prejudices  will  have  to  be  eradicated,  not  by  words, 
but  by  action  and  by  time.  He  then  continues  : 

"  The  resolution  of  my  grandson  to  continue  my  work,  to 
dedicate  his  whole  life  to  it,  and  to  unite  himself  to  my 
friend  Schmidt  by  the  closest  ties,1  gives  our  undertaking, 
even  from  a  financial  point  of  view,  as  much  solidity  as  we 
could  desire. 

"  But  what  is  still  more  important  than  financial  sound- 
ness, and  all  other  external  means  for  forwarding  our  work, 
is  that,  by  my  new  institution  for  forming  masters  and 
mistresses,  I  have  succeeded  in  laying  a  sure  foundation  for 
the  realization  of  the  most  important  parts  of  my  earlier 
undertakings,  a  statement  which  no  one  will  doubt  after 
seeing  the  results  of  the  union  of  my  two  institutes,  which 
has  now  lasted  for  more  than  eighteen  months. 

"  The  facts  will  show  that  the  children  of  the  two  insti- 
tutes joyfully  work  together,  full  of  kindness,  help  and 
mutual  attentions,  each  of  them  advancing  according  to 
his  diligence  and  talents  without  either  jealousy  or  humilia- 
tion. Yes,  I  venture  to  say,  with,  the  most  profound  con- 
viction, that  when  rich  and  poor  children  live  together  in 
the  same  institution,  under  different  regulations  and  condi- 
tions, they  may  often  find  in  this  very  circumstance  a  most 
valuable  means  of  moral  development." 

Pestalozzi  then  explains  at  length  the  advantages  of  his 
new  organization.  In  the  first  place,  his  institute  being 
more  like  a  family  than  a  school,  the  children  enjoy  all  the 
advantages  of  home  life,  and  become  imbued  with  a  sense 
of  what  is  owing  to  parents  and  brothers  and  sisters ;  both 
boys  and  girls,  too,  learn  something  of  the  gentleness, 
modesty,  and  respect  which  should,  in  ordinary  life,  charac- 
terize the  relations  between  the  sexes.  In  the  second  place, 
he  speaks  of  the  social  advantages  of  his  institute,  and  the 
wholesome  influence  they  are  likely  to  exercise  in  the  future. 
Children  of  both  rich  and  poor  mix  freely  together,  the 

1  Soon  after  this  Gottlieb  married  Schmidt's  sister. 
£4 


346          PESTALOZZI:   HIS  LIFE  AND    WORK. 

difference  in  tastes  and  habits,  however,  and  in  the  positions 
they  will  some  day  be  called  upon  to  occupy  being  strictly 
kept  in  view ;  they  receive  the  same  education  and  the 
same  elementary  instruction,  and  profit  equally  from  all 
the  resources  of  the  institute.  In  this  way  they  learn  to 
know  and  respect  one  another,  and  on  going  out  into  the 
world  do  much  to  weaken  the  prejudices  which  foster  such 
dangerous  antagonism  between  the  different  classes  of 
society. 

Pestalozzi  recognizes  with  regret  that  his  magnificent 
ideal  of  social  regeneration  has  not  yet  baen  realized  in  his 
own  establishment,  but  the  experience  of  the  last  year  and 
a  half  leaves  no  doubt  in  his  mind  as  to  its  possibility.  He 
also  recognizes  his  own  incapacity,  but  counts  on  Schmidt, 
who  already  bears  the  whole  burden,  to  continue  and  com- 
plete his  work.  After  once  more  speaking  in  terms  of  tha 
highest  praise  of  this  valiant  collaborator,  whose  full  value 
he  alone  appreciates,  he  concludes  by  giving  the  conditions 
of  admission,  terms,  etc.,  for  the  different  classes  of  pupils. 

But  neither  Pestalozzi's  experiment,  nor  the  pamphlet 
which  gave  such  a  favourable  account  of  it,  succeeded  in 
convincing  the  public.  The  well-to-do  parents,  little  inclined 
to  believe  in  the  value  of  such  a  mixed  institution,  removed 
their  children  without  delay,  and  Pestalozzi  once  more  found 
himself  in  a  position  of  grave  financial  embarrassment. 

The  year  1821  was  filled  with  Pestalozzi's,  or  rather 
Schmidt's  disputes  with  the  Yverdun  Municipality ;  for,  in 
spite  of  the  great  falling  off  in  the  number  of  the  pupils, 
and  in  spite  of  the  fact  that  most  of  those  who  remained 
were  poor  children,  Pestalozzi  actually  allowed  himself  to 
l)e  persuaded  that  the  rooms  were  not  comfortable  enough, 
*,nd  required  considerable  alteration.  Accordingly,  on  the 
12th  of  January,  he.  wrote  to  the  Municipality  reproaching 
them  with  causing  the  decline  of  the  institution  by  their 
neglect  of  the  buildings,  asking  for  repairs  to  the  amount 
of  nearly  two  hundred  pounds,  and  threatening  legal  pro- 
ceedings if  they  did  not  carry  out  their  engagements. 

On  the  2nd  of  February  the  Municipality,  which  till  now 
had  always  readily  acceded  to  Pestalozzi's  requests,  replied 
that  these  recriminations  and  threats^  were  in  striking  con- 
trast with  the  friendliness  of  their  previous  relations,  and 
that  it  could  only  attribute  the  tone  of  Pestalozzi's  letter 


DEATH-AGONY  OF   THE  INSTITUTE.          347 

to  the  secretary  he  had  been  pleased  to  employ.  It  ex- 
pressed surprise  that  additional  accommodation  should  be 
required  when  the  number  of  pxipils  had  so  much  diminished, 
and  pointed  out  that  the  nature  of  the  institute  had  been 
changed,  on  the  one  hand  by  the  addition  of  the  poor-school, 
and  on  the  other  by  the  attempt  to  adapt  the  internal 
arrangements  to  the  luxurious  habits  and  tastes  of  the  many 
English  who  had  come  there,  and  who  were  dissatisfied  with 
the  simplicity  of  the  life,  a  simplicity,  however,  which  hud 
formerly  been  accompanied  by  so  much  prosperity.  In  con- 
clusion, the  Municipality  promised  that  a  Commission  should 
be  appointed  to  confer  with  Pestalozzi,  and  see  if  some 
understanding  could  be  arrived  at. 

On  the  13th  of  February,  Pestalozzi,  in  another  letter, 
asks  that  the  free  use  of  the  Castle  to  be  granted  after  his 
death  to  persons  named  by  him,  shall  be  not  for  five  years 
only  but  for  twenty. 

On  the  24th,  the  Municipality  suggests  that  the  expense 
of  the  repairs  shall  be  borne  partly  by  Pestalozzi  and  partly 
by  the  town,  and  consents  on  these  conditions  to  grant  the 
free  use  of  the  Castle  for  at  least  fifteen  years  from  1821. 
In  a  further  letter,  on  the  3rd  of  March,  Pestalozzi  refuses 
to  bear  any  part  of  the  expense  of  the  repairs.  The  Munici- 
pality accordingly  retracts  its  offer,  and  awaits  the  threat- 
ened proceedings. 

Before  very  long  these  proceedings  were  really  commenced, 
but  only  after  the  Municipality  had  made  another  fruitless 
effort  to  come  to  an  amicable  arrangement.  On  the  17th  of 
August,  and  while  the  case  was  proceeding,  a  still  further 
effort  was  made,  the  Municipality  offering  to  pay  Pestalozzi 
a  hundred  pounds  on  the  condition  that  he  would  not  ask 
for  any  more  money  for  five  years,  and  that  after  that  time 
the  expense  of  repairs  should  be  divided  equally  between 
himself  and  the  town,  the  town's  share  never  to  exceed 
fifteen  pounds  a  year. 

But  this  new  proposal  was  also  rejected,  and  the  case 
went  on  till  the  15th  of  November,  when  Pestalozzi  with- 
drew. Even  then,  out  of  consideration  for  him,  the  munici- 
pality undertook  to  pay  the  costs,  which  amounted  to  nearly 
twenty  pounds. 

While  Schmidt  was  thus  compromising  Pestalozzi's  name 
by  these  miserable  disputes,  the  old  man,  paying  little 


348         PESTALOZZI:    HIS  LIFE  AND    WORK. 

attention  to  administrative  details,  never  ceased  to  work  at 
the  application  of  his  principles  to  elementary  instruction 
and  the  raising  of  the  people. 

On  the  12th  of  January,  1822,  his  seventy-sixth  birthday, 
he  presented  a  child  with  a  copy  of  Leonard  and  Gertrude, 
the  gift  being  accompanied  by  the  following  letter: 

"  My  dear  Child ! 

"  If  I  were  not  so  near  the  grave,  if  I  could  hope  to  see 
with  my  own  eyes  your  early  development,  I  would  not,  in 
memory  of  my  experiences  and  views,  offer  you  this  poor 
gift,  but  would  joyfully  devote  all  my  remaining  powers  to 
awakening  and  developing  yours. 

"  But  my  time  is  past,  and  so  I  can  only  give  you  this 
dead  book,  Leonard  and  Gertrude,  to  remind  you  of  my 
life.  May  it,  by  its  impression  on  you,  lead  you  to  the  same 
wisdom,  the  same  strength,  and  the  same  holiness  in  things 
human  as  in  things  Divine  ! 

"  My  child,  the  world  is  full  of  evil ;  beware  of  its  cunning 
devices,  its  enchantments  and  its  gold ;  beware,  above  all, 
of  your  own  weakness.  Learn  to  know  yourself.  Examine 
and  consider  well  what  great  powers  God  has  given  you, 
what  goodness  and  holiness  He  has  put  in  your  heart ;  for 
it  is  here  that  you  will  find  your  first  help  against  your 
flesh  and  against  the  world  with  its  corruption.  Pray  God 
that  none  of  His  precious  gifts  be  lost  through  your  own 
fault.  Bury  none  of  your  talents,  like  the  worthless  steward 
in  the  Gospel,  but  endeavour  in  all  things  to  become  perfect 
as  your  Father  in  heaven  is  perfect.  Sanctify  by  faith  and 
love  these  gifts  of  God,  that  they  may  become  holy  powers 
within  you,  devoted  to  the  imitation  of  your  Saviour  and 
the  service  of  God  and  man.  For,  my  dear  child,  in  develop- 
ing that  which  is  Divine  within  you,  you  must  not  neglect 
that  which  is  human.  Let  your  holiness  go  hand  in  hand 
with  the  manifold  duties  of  your  earthly  life,  guiding  you, 
supporting  you,  and  strengthening  you  at  all  times  and  in 
all  places. 

•  "PESTALOZZI. 

"  Yverdun,  the  12th  of  January,  1822  ;  my  birthday." 

This  letter  shows  that  at  seventy-six  years  of  age  Pesta- 
lozzi  had  lost  none  of  his  activity  of  heart  and  mind 


DEATH-AGONY  OF  THE  INSTITUTE.          349 

although  the  poor  old  man  blindly  allowed  himself  to  be 
dragged  into  groundless  law-suits  and  impossible  undertake 
ings.  But  it  is  also  interesting  for  another  reason,  At  this 
time  the  canton  of  Vaud  was  the  scene  of  what  has  been 
called  a  religious  revival.  To  profound  convictions  on  many 
neglected  points  of  Christian  doctrine,  the  leaders  of  the 
movement  joined  a  narrow  party-spirit,  the  tendency  of 
which  was  to  place  believers  outside  the  conditions  of 
ordinary  life,  to  the  very  great  detriment  of  both  family 
and  social  relations.  The  letter  shows  us  Pestalozzi,  alarmed 
by  this  tendency,  endeavouring  to  ward  off  the  danger  from 
a  child  in  whom  he  is  evidently  deeply  interested,  the 
essential  point  of  his  exhortation  being  as  to  the  necessity 
of  not  separating  the  Divine  and  human  elements  in  our 
lives. 

During  this  same  year,  1822,  Pestalozzi  continued  to  work 
at  the  elementary  teaching  of  language  with  the  ardent 
zeal  and  obstinate  perseverance  that  form  one  of  his  most 
remarkable  characteristics.  In  this  connection  Miss  Cha- 
vannes,  in  her  biography  of  Pestalozzi,  quotes  an  interesting 
passage  from  Professor  Charles  Monnard's  article  on  him  in 
the  Encyclopedic  Review : l 

"The  first  thing  to  strike  us,  when  we  consider  Pestalozzi's 
career  as  a  whole,  is  the  decision  and  boldness  with  which 
he  had  grasped,  at  the  very  outset,  the  central  idea  of  all 
his  subsequent  labours,  labours  which  were  continued  even 
upon  his  death-bed.  As  he  thus  began,  as  it  were,  with  a 
conception  of  his  completed  system,  his  first  steps  betokened 
an  assurance,  and  his  first  experiments  a  sincerity,  an  inde- 
pendence, and  a  boldness  which  could  only  be  the  outcome 
of  genius.  The  astonishment  of  his  contemporaries,  their 
mockery,  their  criticism,  their  indifference  even,  nothing 
could  daunt  him.  In  his  work,  as  in  his  writings,  there  is 
indeed  development  and  progression,  but  the  aim  is  always 
the  same,  and  there  is  always  the  one  dominant  idea,  the 
soul  of  his  labours  as  of  his  life.  A  single  fact  will  suffice 
to  show  the  constancy  with  which  he  followed  this  idea,  it 
might  almost  be  said,  his  only  idea.  In  the  last  years  of  his 
life,  he  endeavoured  to  apply  his  method  to  the  study  of 

1  1836,  p.  295. 


350         PESTALOZZI:    HIS  LIFE  AND    WORK. 

Latin.  As  lie  honoured  the  -writer  of  this  article  with  his 
friendship  and  confidence,  he  came  to  him  one  day  and 
explained  at  some  length  what  he  had  already  accomplished. 
This  was  in  July,  1822.  Shortly  afterwards  I  had  to  take 
a  journey  which  kept  me  away  from  Pestalozzi  for  more 
than  eighteen  months;  but  I  was  no  sooner  back  than  he 
came  to  me  again,  and  after  asking  for  my  family  and  health, 
at  once  took  up  our  conversation  on  the  teaching  of  Latin 
where  we  had  dropped  it  in  July,  1822,  exclaiming :  '  Let 
us  begin  at  once,  and  lose  no  time.'  " 

It  is  now  our  painful  duty  to  turn  to  the  deplorable 
quarrels  between  Pestalozzi  and  Schmidt,  and  their  old 
collaborators.  In  the  first  place,  Niederer,  to  excuse  him- 
self for  having  left  the  institute,  attacked  Schmidt ;  and 
then  Schmidt,  to  justify  himself,  attacked  Niederer.  The 
controversy  became  more  and  more  bitter  and  violent. 
Pestalozzi  was  not  really  concerned  in  it,  but  as  he  was 
unwilling  to  leave  Schmidt  in  the  breach,  he  accepted  the 
responsibility  of  all  his  acts.  Niederer,  out  of  respect  for 
his  former  master,  did  what  he  could  to  spare  him,  but 
unfortunately  the  severe  blows  he  aimed  at  Schmidt  all  fell 
on  the  old  man. 

The  better  to  satisfy  his  animosity,  Schmidt  had  invented 
two  ways  of  attacking  his  adversaries,  both  in  the  osten- 
sible interests  of  Pestalozzi  and  his  institute. 

The  first  was  in  connection  with  the  girls'  school  which 
Pestalozzi  had  founded  and  made  over  to  the  Niederers. 
Schmidt  maintained  that  the  transaction  had  never  beeii 
closed,  and  that  there  was  still  money  owing  to  Pestalozzi, 
an  allegation  which  Niederer  entirely  denied.  After  the 
dispute  had  lasted  some  years,  Pestalozzi  and  Schmidt  with- 
drew their  claim. 

Ti  e  other  method  was  to  induce  the  Government  of  the 
canton  of  Vaud  to  forbid  those  of  Pestalozzi's  collaborators 
who  had  left  the  institute  to  open  private  educational  estab- 
lishments in  Yverdun;  and  with  this  object  Pestalozzi 
addressed  a  memorial  to  the  Government,  a  copy  of  which 
he  sent,  on  the  23rd  of  October,  1818,  to  the  Yverdun 
Municipality,  with  the  request  that  they  would  support  his 
demand.  But  the  Municipality  refused,  saying  that  as 
perfect  liberty  of  action  in  such  matters  was  guaranteed 


DEATH-AGONY  OF  THE  INSTITUTE.          351 

in  the  canton,  the  Council  of  State  itself  would  not  have 
the  right  to  do  as  he  wished.  On  the  30th  of  the  same 
month,  Niederer,  Krusi  and  Naef  asked  the  Municipality  to 
acquaint  them  with  the  tenor  of  Pestalozzi's  memorial,  a 
request  that  was  also  refused.  We  do  not  know  what  precise 
answer  the  Government  made  Pestalozzi,  but  it  was  bound 
to  be  in  the  negative. 

Niederer  continued  therefore  to  direct  his  institute  for 
girls,  and  Naef  his  for  deaf  mutes,  while  Krusi  and  Knusert 
together  founded  a  boarding-school  for  boys,  the  sole  direc- 
tion of  which,  however,  soon  devolved  upon  Knusert,  Krusi 
being  called  away  to  direct  the  cantonal  school  of  Trogen  in 
his  native  canton. 

Meanwhile  Niederer  had  commenced  proceedings  against 
Schmidt  for  libel.  After  a  long  trial,  however,  Schmidt  was 
acquitted. 

But  this  state  of  things,  which  had  already  deprived  the 
institute  of  the  support  it  most  needed,  and  was  now  fast 
bringing  about  its  final  ruin,  made  Pestalozzi  exceedingly 
unhappy,  so  that  he  was  ready  to  do  anything  for  the  sake 
of  peace,  except  indeed  the  one  thing  necessary,  which  was 
to  dismiss  Schmidt.  Since  the  death  of  his  wife  he  had 
been  without  the  advice  and  affectionate  sympathy  that 
for  forty-five  years  had  supported  and  cheered  him  through 
the  hardest  trials ;  and  though  his  belief  in  his  work,  his 
devotion,  vivid  imagination,  and  persevering  activity  were 
still  the  same,  they  not  infrequently  gave  way  to  periods 
of  grief  and  despondency.  In  February,  1823,  during  one 
of  these  sad  times,  he  wrote  to  the  Niederers,  begging  them 
to  put  an  end  to  the  proceedings  they  had  instituted  against 
Schmidt,  and  in  which  the  old  man,  anxious  to  answer  for 
his  friend,  had  found  himself  involved.  This  letter,  which 
Pestalozzi  afterwards  printed  in  the  Experiences,  runs  as 
follows : 

"  I  implore  you,  in  the  name  of  God,  deliver  me  from  the 
martyrdom  that  I  am  suffering  in  this  guilty  war,  which 
for  nearly  six  years  has  been  raging  between  our  two  so- 
called  Christian  institutions  with  wicked  and  ar  ti-Christian 
obstinacy.  Think,  my  dear  Niederer,  of  all  we  have  hoped 
together,  and  of  what  we  have  been  for  each  other ;  become, 
bo  far  as  possible,  my  old  friend  again,  as  I  woiild  fain  be 


352         PESTALOZZI:    HIS  LIFE  AND    WORK. 

once  more  yours.  Oh,  Niederer,  would  that  our  former  love 
might  so  strengthen  and  sanctify  us  that  we  might  go  and 
take  the  sacrament  together  without  fearing  to  cause  sur- 
prise and  scandal  amongst  our  neighbours !  .  .  .  Dear 
friends,  I  am  standing  on  the  brink  of  the  grave  ;  will  you 
not  let  me  go  down  to  it  in  tranquillity  ?  But  there  is  also 
something  left  for  me  to  do  on  earth ;  I  implore  you,  there- 
fore, free  me  from  the  tortures  that  these  miserable  quarrel- 
lings  inflict  upon  me,  that  henceforth  I  may  go  on  with  my 
work  in  peace.  Grant  me  this  help,  and  I  promise  you  my 
love  and  gratitude  till  my  life's  end." 

One.  wonderS  how  Niederer  can  have  resisted  such  an 
appeal,  and  whether  he  had  completely  lost  the  admiration 
and  respect  he  had  once  felt  for  Pestalozzi.  This  was  cer- 
tainly not  the  case,  but  the  fact  is  that  he  dared  not  trust 
the  feeble  old  man  so  long  as  he  remained  such  a  mere  tool 
in  Schmidt's  hands. 

Meanwhile  the  Vaudese  Government,  enlightened  either 
by  Pestalozzi's  request  as  to  the  collaborators  who  had  left 
the  institute,  or  by  the  reports  of  the  Yverdun  municipality 
on  the  proceedings  that  had  been  instituted  against  them, 
had  become  aware  of  this  unhappy  state  of  things ;  and, 
fearful  lest  these  painful  disputes  should  result  in  the  ruin 
of  a  useful  and  celebrated  institution,  determined  to  put  an 
end  to  them.  It  accordingly  instructed  its  representative 
at  Yverdun  to  interpose  and  make  an  effort  to  bring  about 
a  reconciliation,  which,  after  much  trouble,  he  succeeded  in 
doing,  the  contending  parties  consenting  to  sign  a  sort  of 
treaty  of  peace,  which  was  drawn  up  in  French  by  Niederer 
himself.  It  will  be  observed  that  in  the  preamble  of  this 
document,  which  we  give  below,  Pestalozzi  occupied  a  place 
apart,  as  if  he  were  not  really  concerned  in  the  matter  : 

"  The  undersigned,  Doctor  Henry  Pestalozzi,  founder  and 
head  of  an  educational  institute  in  Yverdun,  together  with 
Hermann  Krusi,  director  of  the  cantonal  school  of  Appenzell 
at  Trogen,  Conrad  Naef,  head  of  an  institute  for  deaf-mutes, 
and  Doctor  Jean  Niederer,  minister  of  the  Gospel  and  head 
of  an  institute  for  girls,  of  the  one  part,  and  Joseph  Schmidt 
of  the  other  part,  having  resolved  to  terminate  their  differ- 
ences amicably,  and  in  a  manner  consistent  with  the  persona) 


DEATH-AGONY  OF  THE  INSTITUTE.          353 

character,  dignity,  and  civil  and  social  position  of  those 
concerned,  have  agreed  on  the  following  points : 

"  I.  They  declare  to  be  contrary  to  truth,  their  better 
knowledge,  and  their  real  convictions,  all  the  slanderous 
statements  and  imputations  that  have,  as  the  result  of  cer- 
tain misunderstandings,  been  spoken,  written,  or  printed 
since  the  return  of  the  above-named  Joseph  Schmidt  to  the 
institute  of  Pestalozzi  in  1815,  whoever  may  have  been  the 
subject  of  the  said  statements  and  wherever  they  may  have 
originated.  They  particularly  make  a  formal  retraction  of 
the  charges  and  counter-charges  made  in  connection  with 
certain  financial  disputes,  as  being  without  foundation,  and, 
so  far  as  they  affect  the  honour  and  uprightness  of  the 
persons  concerned,  as  being  the  result  of  a  misapprehension 
and  of  the  heat  of  passion. 

"  II.  The  law-suits  now  pending  to  be  withdrawn  by  the 
proper  party,  each  side  paying  its  own  costs. 

"  III.  The  still  unsettled  financial  question  to  be  referred 
to  four  arbitrators,  who,  in  the  event  of  equal  votes,  shall 
choose  a  further  arbitrator  to  decide  the  matter.  Each 
side  to  choose  its  own  arbitrators,  and  to  have  absolute 
freedom  of  choice.  The  decision  to  be  made  public,  if  so 
desired. 

"  IV.  As  it  is  essential,  on  the  one  hand,  that  the  internal 
harmony  of  the  establishments  and  the  free  action  of  those 
who  direct  them  be  undisturbed,  and,  on  the  Bother,  that  the 
means  at  present  existing  for  Pestalozzi's  undertaking  be 
made  the  best  possible  use  of,  Messrs.  Naef  and  Niederer 
offer  to  do  what  they  can  to  further  his  efforts,  provided, 
that  is,  that  they  can  be  useful  to  him  and  that  he  makes 
them  a  personal  request,  and  on  the  understanding,  of 
course,  that  they  will  as  carefully  avoid  all  interference 
with  the  internal  relations  and  management  of  Pestalozzi's 
institute  as  Pestalozzi  would  avoid  interference  with  theirs. 

"  V.  In  the  event  of  new  misunderstandings  and  dissen- 
sions arising  in  connection  with  Pestalozzi's  wishes  concern- 
ing the  before-mentioned  persons  and  their  establishments,  a 
contingency  of  which  we  are  not  at  all  afraid,  the  differences 
to  be  settled  in  a  frank  and  generous  spirit  by  arbitrators 
appointed  in  Yverdun  itself. 

"  VI.  In  the  event  of  Pestalozzi's  unwillingness  to  make 
the  whole  of  this  agreement  public,  Messrs.  Krusi,  Naef 


354         PESTALOZZI:    HIS  LIFE  AND    WORK. 

and  Niederer  will  be  satisfied  with  the  publication  of  the 
first  three  points  or  the  first  alone. 

"  Yverdun,  the  31st  December,  1823. 

"  PESTALOZZI,  J.  C.  NAEF, 

J.  SCHMIDT.  J.  NIEDERER,  in  my 

own    name  and  in 
that  of 
MR.  HERMANN  KRUSI." 

This  document  was  published  in  1824  in  the  ninth  volume 
of  Cotta's  edition  of  Pestalozzi's  works,  where  it  is  accom- 
.panied  by  a  declaration,  dated  the  17th  March,  1824,  which 
begins  thus : 

"  I  am  grieved  beyond  measure  to  be  obliged  to  insert 
here  this  memorial  of  a  most  unhappy  time ;  but  I  cannot 
do  otherwise,  for  these  hostilities,  which  from  their  first 
causes  to  their  final  consequences  lasted  no  less  than  ten 
years,  have  crushed  all  my  hopes  by  slowly  destroying 
every  means  I  possessed  of  reaching  the  end  to  which  I 
had  devoted  my  life.  I  hope  the  public  will  share  the 
sorrow  I  feel  in  thus  being  compelled  to  declare  that  these 
circumstances  have  rendered  the  foundation  from  which  I 
expected  such  good  results  entirely  impossible,  and  have 
made  me  absolutely  incapable  of  fulfilling  the  engagements 
I  contracted  with  so  much  ardour." 

Pestalozzi  then  goes  on  to  explain  how  these  dissensions 
brought  trouble  into  his  establishment,  robbed  him  of  the 
confidence  of  the  public,  and  so  ruined  his  institute,  upon 
which  he  counted  as  a  fundamental  and  indispensable  part 
of  his  projected  enterprise.  He  adds,  that  he  has  spent  his 
last  farthing,  that  he  has  even  had  to  use  some  of  his 
grandson's  money,  that  his  pen  is  the  only  resource  left  him 
for  carrying  on  the  work  of  his  life,  that  he  already  has 
several  manuscripts  almost  completed,  and  that  he  is  going 
to  work  with  redoubled  zeal. 

Few  of  Pestalozzi's  friends  read  this  declaration  without 
a  feeling  of  burning  shame.  They  accused  Schmidt  of  having 
excited  illusory  hopes  in  the  old  man  so  long  as  there  was 
a  chance  of  increasing  the  subscription  to  his  writings,  of 
having  caused  him  to  waste  the  proceeds  of  this  subscrip- 


DEATH-AGONY   OF  THE  INSTITUTE.  355 

tion  in  law-suits  and  fruitless  efforts  to  give  an  appearance 
of  vitality  to  an  institute  already  as  good  as  dead,  and  lastly, 
of  not  having  opened  his  eyes  till  it  was  impossible  to  go  on 
any  longer. 

The  fact  is  that  Pestalozzi  never  had  the  disposal  of  his 
two  thousand  pounds  ;  that  Schmidt,  clever  as  he  was,  wag 
a  very  bad  administrator ;  and  that  the  noble  friend  of 
humanity  died  as  poor  as  he  had  lived. 

The  final  and  complete  ruin  of  his  hopes  seems  to  have  come 
upon  Pestalozzi  suddenly,  for,  a  few  weeks  before  the  date 
of  his  declaration  to  the  public,  he  was  still  occtipied  with 
the  question  of  repairs,  towards  which,  on  the  30th  of 
January,  1824,  the  municipality  had  voted  him  a  grant  of 
fifty  pounds. 

Meanwhile  all  the  pupils  in  a  position  to  pay  had  left  the 
institute,  a  few  poor  children  alone  remaining.  Gottlieb 
and  his  wife  had  gone  to  farm  at  Neuhof ;  and  Pestalozzi, 
almost  penniless,  still  owed  the  town  arrears  of  rent  for 
the  field  that  he  had  taken  on  lease  in  1817. 

The  rest  of  this  year,  1824,  was  spent  in  struggling 
against  these  financial  difficulties,  the  old  man's  distress  at 
one  .time  being  so  great  that  he  allowed  himself  to  be  per- 
suaded to  take  a  step  which,  in  spite  of  our  knowledge  of 
Schmidt's  ascendancy  over  him,  would  be  absolutely  incre- 
dible were  it  not  that  the  proof  of  it  is  still  to  be  seen  in  the 
Yverdun  archives.  When  pressed  by  the  Municipality  for  the 
arrears  of  rent  above  mentioned,  the  old  man,  in  a  letter  dated 
the  5th  of  November,  1824,  asked  that  his  debt  should  be  re- 
duced by  the  amount  of  an  indemnity  due  to  him  for  having 
been  to  Basle  in  1814  at  the  time  when  it  seemed  likely  that 
a  military  hospital  would  be  established  in  Yverdun. 

As  Schmidt  took  the  management  of  these  financial  matl  ers 
entirely  out  of  Pestalozzi's  hands,  the  old  man  was  able  to 
devote  a  great  deal  of  attention  to  his  literary  work.  He 
was  chiefly  engaged  now  in  elaborating  his  elementary 
exercises  of  language,  but  he  also,  about  this  time,  com- 
pleted and  published  a  pamphlet  of  some  eighty  pages, 
entitled :  Views  on  Industry,  Education,  and  Politics,  in 
connection  tcith  the  State  of  our  Counti~y  before  and  after 
the  Revolution,  and  bearing  the  motto,  Know  Thyself. 

In  this  interesting  work,  which  deserves  to  be  better 
known,  the  author  looks  forward  to  a  great  development  of 


356         PESTALOZZI:    HIS  LIFE  AND    WORK. 

. , — , , — „ ^., 

industry  and  capital,  and  to  a  correspondingly  great  increase 
in  the  numbers  of  those  who,  dependent  upon  their  daily 
earnings  for  a  livelihood,  are  more  exposed  than  any  other 
class  to  discontent  and  misery,  a  state  of  things  which  will 
only  serve  to  aggravate  the  existing  antagonism  between 
the  classes.  The  only  remedy  for  all  this  lies,  in  his  opinion, 
in  a  good  system  of  popular  education.  At  the  end  of  the 
book  are  two  appendices ;  one  giving  "  the  picture  of  a  poor- 
school,"  the  other  treating  of  "  the  religious  education  of 
the  children  of  the  poor." 

Whilst  Pestalozzi,  carried  away  by  his  heart  and  imagina- 
tion, was  thus  giving  himself  up  to  philanthropic  specula- 
tions, his  ruin  was  slowly  being  consummated. 

Schmidt's  harshness  and  domineering  spirit  had  made  him 
many  enemies.  People  blamed  him  for  the  many  unworthy 
things  Pestalozzi  had  done  in  the  last  few  years,  and  re- 
proached him  for  having  caused  the  ruin  of  the  institute. 
Under  these  circumstances  it  was  soon  felt  that  it  would  be 
well  to  get  him  out  of  the  place,  and  so  render  a  signal 
service  not  only  to  Pestalozzi  and  his  institute,  but  also  to 
the  town.  Schmidt  had  never  complied  with  the  formalities 
that  the  law  required  from  all  strangers  domiciled  in,  the 
canton,  and  ugly  rumours — which,  however,  we  have  reason 
to  believe  were  unfounded — had  been  circulated  about  his 
morality.  Representations  to  this  effect  were  now  made  to 
the  Council  of  State  of  the  canton  by  some  persons  whose 
names  have  never  transpired,  but  whose  opinions  were 
certainly  shared  by  the  great  majority  of  the  inhabitants 
of  Yverdun.  These  complaints  had  the  desired  result ;  for 
there  is  an  entry  in  the  secret  register  of  the  Council,  dated 
the  6th  of  October,  1824,  which  runs  as  follows : 

"  The  commissioners  of  police  report  that  having  been 
informed  that  Mr.  Victor  Joseph  Schmidt,  a  Tyrolese,  had 
encouraged  certain  acts  of  immorality  in  Mr.  Pestalozzi's 
institute  at  Yverdun,  they  instructed  the  justice  of  the 
peace  to  examine  Mr.  Theodore  Frank,  a  master  in  the  said 
institute,  who  was  said  to  be  in  a  position  to  give  informa- 
tion in  the  matter. 

"  From  this  gentleman's  depositions,  and  from  further 
information  furnished  by  the  justice  of  the  peace,  Mr. 
Schmidt  appears  to  be  gravely  compromised. 


DEATH-AGONY  OF  THE  INSTITUTE.          357 

"  The  Council  of  State  therefore,  adopting,  with  certain 
modifications,  the  suggestion  of  th«  commissioners,  have 
decided  to  expel  Mr.  Schmidt  from  the  canton,  and  write  the 
following  letters : 

"1.  To  the  Justice  of  the  Peace  of  the  District  of  Yverdun. 

"  Sir,— 

"  The  Council  of  State  requests  you  to  inform  Mr.  Victor 
Joseph  Schmidt,  who  is  from  another  canton,  and  has  been 
living  in  Mr.  Pestalozzi's  institute  without  having  first  ob- 
tained the  right  of  residence  in  Yverdun,  that  he  must  leave 
the  canton  within  six  weeks  from  this  date. 

"In  this  connection  the  Council  of  State  cannot  refrain  from 
expressing  its  surprise  that  Mr.  Schmidt  should  have  been 
allowed  to  reside  in  Yverdun  for  so  long  without  fulfilling 
the  necessary  conditions  of  residence,  and  requests  that  for 
the  future  you  will  see  that  the  law  is  more  strictly  observed. 

"  2.  To  the  same.     Confidential. 

"  Sir,— 

"  Considering  the  relations  which  exist  between  Mr. 
Pesfcalozzi  and  Mr.  Schmidt,  it  is  probable  that  the  latter 's 
expulsion  will  cause  this  old  man,  to  whose  many  misfortunes 
nobody  can  be  indifferent,  considerable  pain.  The  Council 
of  State  being  anxious,  as  far  as  possible,  to  soften  this  blow 
to  Mr.  Pestalozzi,  requests  you  therefore,  before  notifying 
its  decision  to  Mr.  Schmidt,  to  send  for  Mr.  Pestalozzi,  and, 
without  entering  into  any  details  as  to  the  charges  brought 
against  his  colleague,  give  him  to  understand  that  important 
considerations,  affecting  both  his  institute  and  public  order, 
have  compelled  the  Council  to  take  this  step ;  but  that  the 
esteem  and  respect  in  which  he  has  always  been  held  are 
by  no  means  shaken,  and  that  the  Government's  interest  in 
his  work  will  remain  the  same. 

"  You  will  easily  understand  that  the  object  of  this  con- 
fidential letter  is,  on  the  one  hand,  that  you  may  avoid 
anything  which  would  be  likely  to  give  publicity  to  these  un- 
pleasant facts  ;  and,  on  the  other,  that  you  may  do  all  you  can 
to  spare  the  feelings  of  an  old  man  who,  on  account  of  his  use- 
ful work,  his  devotion  to  his  fellow-creatures,  and  his  present 
unfortunate  circumstances,  deserves  especial  consideration." 

The  justice  of   the  peace  was   thus   instructed   to  make 


358         PESTALOZZI:  HIS  LIFE  AND    WORK. 

Pestalozzi  understand  a  decision  of  which  lie  was  not  even 
to  be  told  the  reason — a  difficult  task,  in  which  he  does  not 
seem  to  have  thoroughly  succeeded.  Be  that  as  it  may, 
Schmidt  easily  persuaded  Pestalozzi  that  the  blow  was 
directed  against  his  institute  and  himself,  and  the  old  man 
accordingly  addressed  violent  protestations  to  the  Council, 
pointing  out  that  to  send  away  a  man  whom  he  could  not  do 
without  was  tantamount  to  making  him  go  himself.  But  his 
protestations  were  in  vain  ;  the  Council  would  grant  nothing 
but  a  few  months'  respite. 

In  letters  dated  the  19th  and  21st  of  February,  1825, 
Pestalozzi  announced  to  the  Municipality  that  he  was  leaving 
Yverdun  ;  but  he  a] so  announced  that  he  should  some  day 
return,  and  that  he  still  claimed  possession  of  the  Castle. 
Now  that  his  institute  had  ceased  to  exist,  however,  the 
Municipality  did  not  feel  bound  to  allow  him  the  use  of  the 
Castle  any  longer ;  and  yet  it  was  not  till  they  had  been  in 
correspondence  with  him  for  two  years,  and  had  actually 
begun  to  take  legal  steps  for  its  recovery,  that  they  regained 
possession  of  the  building,  in  which  Pestalozzi  had  left  a 
single  servant  and  his  natural  history  collections,  everything 
else  having  been  sold. 

It  was  with  some  show  of  reason,  therefore,  that  Schmidt, 
in  a  pamphlet  published  in  1847  entitled,  Pestalozzi  and  his 
Neuhof,  attributed  the  final  closing  of  the  Yverdun  institute 
to  the  Vaudese  Council  of  State. 

Pestalozzi  left  Yverdun  with  Schmidt  early  in  March,  1825, 
and  found  a  home  with  his  grandson  Gottlieb,  at  Neuhof,  a 
place  he  had  himself  made  and  the  scene  of  his  first  efforts 
for  helping  the  people. 

Some  of  his  biographers  have  stated  that  Pestalozzi  was 
anxious  to  take  to  Neuhof  the  pupils  still  left  at  Yverdun, 
but  that  none  of  them  were  willing  to  accompany  him.  The 
Municipality,  on  the  other  hand,  in  a  report  addressed  to  the 
Council  of  State,  affirms  that  some  time  before  the  institute 
was  closed  there  was  not  a  single  pupil  left.  Both  of  these 
statements,  however,  are  incorrect ;  for,  as  we  shall  see 
presently,  it  is  certain  that  at  least  four  of  his  former  pupils 
went  with  him  to  Neuhof. 

The  institute  of  Yverdun  had  lasted  for  twenty  years,  and 
had  enjoyed  an  unexampled  prosperity ;  before  it  ceased  to 
exist,  it  had  fallen  to  the  lowest  degree  of  abasement. 


CHAPTER    XVI. 

PESTALOZZl's   LAST  YEARS. 

In  retirement  at  Neuhofhe  ivrites  7iis  last  works  and  builds  a 
pauper-school.  Papers  read  before  the  Helvetian  Society 
at  Langenthal,  and  the  Society  of  the  Friends  of  Education 
at  Brugg.  Last  sign  of  his  love  for  the  poor.  Biber's 
pamphlet.  Death  of  Pestalozzi.  His  funeral.  His  present 
tomb. 

PESTALOZZI,  nearly  eighty  years  old,  has  now  lost  his  last 
hopes  and  last  illusions  ;  he  has  outlived  his  work,  a  calamity 
the  very  thought  of  which  had  made  him  shudder.  The 
great  dream  of  his  life  is  over ;  the  ideal  which  he  has  so 
passionately  striven  after  from  his  youth,  which  has  been, 
as  it  were,  the  one  object  of  his  love  and  faith,  and  to  which 
he  has  sacrificed  everything  else,  is  now  for  ever  gone. 
Schmidt,  his  self-imposed  master,  is  still  with  him,  leading 
him  like  a  child,  but  there  can  be  little  doubt  that  this 
tyrannical  control  was  very  irksome  to  the  old  man,  for 
though  he  had  submitted  to  it  voluntarily,  it  was  only  because 
it  seemed  to  him  like  a  fatal  necessity  imposed  upon  him  by 
his  gratitude  and  the  interests  of  his  work.  Already  in  his 
discourse  of  the  12th  of  January,  1818,  he  had  admitted  that 
he  was  well  aware  of  Schmidt's  faults,  and  often  suffered 
from  them. 

One  would  imagine  that  so  much  misfortune  and  so  many 
disappointments  would  have  broken  the  old  man's  courage, 
and  crushed  the  activity  and  originality  of  his  genius.  But 
it  was  not  so,  for  he  had  no  sooner  reached  Neuhof  than  he 
eagerly  took  up  his  pen  again,  writing  first  his  Song  of  the 
Swan,  one  of  his  most  remarkable  works,  and  as  it  were  hid 
dying  instructions  to  posterity  in  the  matter  of  education  ; 
and  then  the  Experiences  of  My  Life,  a  book  in  which  he 
gives  an  account  of  his  whole  career,  blaming  himself  for 
all  his  misfortunes,  and  endeavouring  to  exculpate  Schmidt, 


360         PESTALOZZI:    HIS  LIFE  AND    WORK. 

sometimes  even  at  the  expense  of  Niederer.  Besides  these 
two  publications,  of  which  we  shall  have  more  to  say  pre- 
sently, he  was  also  working  at  a  fifth  part  to  Leonard  and 
Gertrude  y  a  new  manual  i'or  mothers,  with  instructions  for 
the  education  of  children  up  to  the  age  of  seven,  to  supple- 
ment the  Book  for  Mothers  already  published,  with  which 
he  was  not  entirely  satisfied ;  and  lastly,  a  series  of  elementary 
exercises  for  teaching  children  Latin  as  they  learn  their 
mother-tongue. 

All  this  literary  work  did  not  in  the  least  interfere  with 
his  plans  for  a  poor-school,  which  he  now  looked  forward  to 
establishing  in  the  very  spot  where  he  had  made  his  first 
unsuccessful  attempt  fifty  years  before.  With  this  end  in 
view,  he  gave  orders,  almost  immediately  after  his  arrival, 
for  the  necessary  buildings  to  be  commenced.  As  the  work 
proceeded,  much  too  slowly  for  the  impatient  old  man,  he 
would  go  and  spend  hours  teaching  in  the  village  school  at 
Birr.  He  also  took  great  delight  in  visiting  his  old  acquaint- 
ances the  peasants,  talking  over  their  affairs  with  them,  and 
giving  them  advice  and  encouragement. 

On  going  back  to  his  grandson  at  Neiihof  with  Schmidt, 
Pestalozzi  had  been  followed  by  four  of  his  pupils,  two  01 
whom  had  been  sent  to  him  from  Cadiz.  He  was  so  eager 
to  spread  his  method  in  France,  England,  Spain,  and 
Portugal,  that  he  sent  Schmidt  to  both  Paris  and  London  in 
furtherance  of  this  object,  and  even  meditated  the  publica- 
tion of  a  periodical  in  French. 

We  owe  these  details  to  Henning,  a  former  Yverdun 
pupil,  who  had  become  the  director  of  a  training  school, 
and  who  visited  Pestalozzi  at  Neuhof,  in  August,  1825. 
His  account  of  his  visit  is  as  follows  : 

"  I  had  not  seen  him  for  thirteen  years,  and  found  him 
looking  older  certainly,  but  on  the  whole  very  little  changefl. 
He  was  still  active  and  strong,  simple  and  open ;  his  face 
still  wore  the  same  kindly,  plaintive  expression ;  his  zeal 
for  human  happiness,  and  especially  for  the  education  of 
poor  and  little  children,  was  as  keen  as  thirteen  years  before. 
.  .  .  In  spite  of  the  heat  he  accompanied  me  to  Lenzburg, 
and  valiantly  mounted  the  two  or  three  hundred  steps 
leading  to  the  Castle.  .  .  .  The  vivacity  of  his  speech 
and  the  vigour  of  all  his  movements  inspired  me  with  the 


PESTALOZZPS  LAST   YEARS.  361 

hope  that  the  term  of  his  earthly  existence  was  still  far  off. 
My  heart  was  full  when  I  took  leave  of  the  kind  old  man. 
I  shall  never  forget  the  time  that  it  was  my  good  fortune  to 
spend  with  him." 

It  is  evident  then  that  in  these  last  days,  Pestalozzi, 
though  still  controlled  by  Schmidt  in  material  affairs,  freely 
carried  on  the  philanthropic  work  to  which  his  life  had  been 
devoted. 

On  the  3rd  of  May,  1825,  Pestalozzi  was  present  at  a 
meeting  of  the  Helvetian  Society,  at  Schinznach.  He  was 
welcomed  with  every  demonstration  of  respect,  and  chosen 
as  president  for  the  following  year.  At  the  banquet  which 
followed  the  meeting,  he  proposed  a  toast  to  "  the  Society 
that  does  not  bruise  the  broken  reed  or  quench  the  smoking 
flax." 

On  the  26th  of  April,  1826,  the  Society  met  at  Langenthal. 
Pestalozzi  had  prepared  an  address,  which  was  read  by 
Schuler,  of  Aerlisbach,  and  which  was  afterwards  printed 
in  Cotta's  edition  of  his  works.  In  the  next  chapter  we 
shall  give  some  account  of  this  interesting  document,  in 
which  the  author  touches  on  many  social  questions  that  are 
still  burning  to-day. 

In  the  summer  of  the  same  year,  Pestalozzi  and  Schmidt 
paid  a  visit  to  the  institute  for  orphans  founded  by  Zeller, 
at  Beuggen,  near  Rheinfelden.  Zeller  managed  his  estab- 
lishment with  much  zeal  and  talent,  and  in  most  respects 
followed  Pestalozzi's  method.  Being  one  of  those  Christians, 
however,  who  think  that  a  child's  natural  tendencies  are  all 
bad,  he  blamed  Pestalozzi  for  looking  on  education  as  a  mere 
development  of  what  is  by  nature  good.  In  his  religious 
ardour  Zeller  loved  dogmatism  no  less  than  Pestalozzi 
feared  it. 

Ik  spite  of  these  differences,  the  old  man  was  received  at 
Beuggen  with  every  expression  of  esteem  and  respect.  The 
children  sang  a  poem  of  Goethe's,  quoted  in  Leonard  and 
Gertrude,  and  peculiarly  applicable  to  the  sad  circumstances 
of  their  guest;  they  then  offered  him  a  crown  of  oak,  which, 
however,  he  refused  to  accept,  saying,  with  tears  in  his 
eyes,  "  I  am  not  worthy  of  this  crown ;  leave  it  for  inno- 
cence ! " 

On  the  21st  of  November  of  the  same  year,   1826,  the 

25 


362         PESTALOZZI:    HIS  LIFE  AND    WORK. 

Society  of  Friends  of  Education  assembled  at  Brugg. 
Pestalozzi,  who  was  present  at  the  meeting,  had  prepared 
a  paper  on  "  The  simplest  means  of  educating  children  at 
home,  from  the  cradle  to  the  age  of  six."  After  this  paper 
had  been  read  by  his  friend  and  neighbour,  the  pastor  of 
Birr,  Pestalozzi  himself  rose  to  add  a  few  new  developments, 
and  spoke  with  such  warmth,  such  zeal  for  his  idea,  such 
passionate  love  for  children,  that  he  seemed  to  have  recovered 
all  his  old  strength. 

The  same  compassion  for  the  poor  that  had  inspired 
Pestalozzi's  earliest  efforts  continued  to  inspire  him  to  the 
end.  As  winter  approached  he  was  troubled  to  see  that  the 
rise  in  the  price  of  firewood  would  prevent  many  of  his 
neighbours  from  laying  in  a  sufficient  stock  for  the  severe 
weather.  Fearing  that  this  would  entail  a  terrible  amount 
of  suffering  and  disease  on  many  families,  he  tried  to  find 
some  means  of  prevention.  The  poor  people,  he  thought, 
would  spend  their  winter  tinder  much  healthier  conditions 
if  the  bare  ground  on  which  their  cottages  stood  was  covered 
with  a  layer  of  gravel,  to  keep  the  damp  away,  and  then 
with  two  or  three  layers  of  straw-matting.  It  seemed  to 
him  that  such  a  simple  thing  as  this  would  be  within  every- 
body's reach.  But  not  satisfied  with  merely  advising  the 
peasants  what  to  do,  he  sought  to  set  them  the  example  by 
making  the  experiment  himself. 

With  this  object  he  selected  in  his  still  unfinished  house 
a  room  on  the  ground-floor,  where  the  flooring  had  not  yet 
been  laid,  and,  having  filled  his  pocket  with  small  stones, 
proceeded  to  throw  them  in  through  the  open  window. 
Seeing  this,  his  grandson  had  a  few  loads  of  gravel  shot 
before  the  house,  and  offered  to  help  him,  but  the  old  man 
would  not  accept  any  further  assistance,  and  even  in  the 
month  of  December  was  still  to  be  seen  kneeling  in  the  snow, 
with  trembling  hands  throwing  the  gravel  into  the  room. 
At  last,  however,  the  severity  of  the  weather  and  his  ever 
increasing  weakness  interrupted  the  work,  which  he  was 
destined  never  to  resume.  Long  after  his  death  the  heap  of 
gravel  was  still  to  be  seen  before  the  window,  last  token,  as 
it  were,  of  his  compassion  for  the  poor. 

We  give  these  last  facts,  on  the  authority  of  Mr.  Lippe, 
of  Lenzburg,  who,  at  this  time,  paid  frequent  visits  to 
Pestalozzi  at  Neuhof. 


PESTALOZZFS  LAST   YEARS.  363 

But  there  was  still  another  sorrow  in  store  for  the  old 
man,  a  sorrow  more  poignant  than  all  the  rest,  and  one  which 
was  to  deal  him  his  death-blow. 

In  writing  the  Experiences,  Pestalozzi,  influenced  by 
Schmidt,  whom  he  was  seeking  to  defend,  had  allowed  him- 
self tr  be  led  into  many  unfortunate  exaggerations,  and  had 
been  very  unjust  to  those  of  his  old  collaborators  who  had 
forsaken  him.  Niederer  especially  had  been  deeply  hurt, 
and  had  vented  his  indignation  in  Yverdun  with  his  character- 
istic energy.  His  grievances  had  been  eagerly  taken  up 
by  a  man  named  Edward  Biber,  of  Wurtemberg,  who  was 
employed  in  the  school  lately  founded  by  Krusi.  This  man 
had  arrived  at  Yverdun  after  Pestalozzi's  departure,  had 
stayed  but  one  year  there,  and  had  then  gone  to  Saint  Grallen, 
where  he  wrote,  in  Niederer's  justification,  a  pamphlet, 
entitled  :  Notes  for  the  biography  of  Henry  Pestalozzi^  and 
for  the  better  understanding  of  his  late  work :  Experiences 
of  my  Life. 

Biber  was  entirely  devoid  of  tact  or  feeling ;  his  pamphlet 
is  little  more  than  a  long  insult  to  the  venerable  philan- 
thropist who,  after  devoting  himself  for  eighty  years  to  the 
service  of  humanity,  was  ending  his  days  in  misfortune. 
Pestalozzi's  character,  religion  and  educational  doctrine,  were 
alike  attacked,  and  as  the  pamphlet  contained  expressions 
which  were  known  to  have  been  used  by  Niederer  in  his 
anger,  people  readily  enough  believed  that  he,  if  not  actually 
the  writer,  was  at  least  the  instigator  of  it,  whereas  no  one 
was  more  genuinely  indignant  with  the  infamous  production. 
In  spite  of  the  differences  which  had  arisen  between  Pestalozzi 
and  Niederer,  the  latter  had  never  ceased  to  express  respect 
and  admiration  for  his  former  master,  and  yet  he  was  the 
man  most  deeply  wronged  by  Biber's  pamphlet,  for  which, 
indeed,  certain  recent  biographers  still  hold  him  responsible. 

Pestalozzi's  grief  was  naturally  very  great  when  he  found 
the  work  he  held  so  dear  thus  spitefully  attacked ;  but  when, 
in  a  notice  of  Biber's  work  in  a  Zurich  paper,  he  read  :  "  It 
seems  that  Pestalozzi  is  like  certain  animals  who  hide  at 
sight  of  the  stick ;  otherwise  he  would  reply  to  these  attacks," 
he  was  almost  beside  himself  with  indignation,  crying,  "  I 
can  bear  this  no  longer." 

Utterly  prostrated  by  this  terrible  blow,  he  fell  seriously 
ill.  To  his  doctor.  Doctor  Stsebli  of  Brugg,  he  said:  "I 


364         PESTALOZZI ' :    HIS  LIFE  AND    WORK. 

feel  that  I  am  going  to  die ;  but  I  must  have  six  weeks 
longer  to  refute  these  shameful  calumnies." 

The  doctor  sought  to  reassure  him,  but  strictly  forbade  him 
to  work  in  the  state  in  which  he  then  was.  The  old  man, 
however,  took  no  notice  of  his  orders,  and  forthwith  set  to 
work  to  write  his  answer.  But  the  little  strength  he  had 
left  soon  failed  him,  and  the  pen  fell  from  his  hands. 

The  following  lines,  written  during  these  last  days  of 
Buffering,  were  found  on  his  table : 

"  My  sufferings  are  inexpressible ;  no  man  could  under- 
stand the  sorrow  of  my  soul.  People  despise  me  as  a  feeble, 
infirm  old  man ;  they  no  longer  think  me  good  for  anything ; 
I  do  but  excite  their  derision.  It  is  not,  however,  for  myself 
that  I  am  tnnibled,  but  for  my  idea,  which  shares  my  fate. 
My  most  sacred  possession,  the  belief  that  has  inspired  the 
whole  of  my  long  and  painful  life,  is  scornfully  trodden 
under  foot.  To  die  is  nothing ;  I  even  welcome  death,  for 
I  am  weary,  and  would  fain  be  at  rest ;  but  to  have  lived  a 
life  of  sacrifice  and  to  have  failed,  to  see  my  work  destroyed 
and  go  down  with  it  to  the  grave,  this  is  frightful,  more 
frightful  than  I  can  express.  Would  that  I  could  weep,  but 
my  tears  refuse  to  flow. 

"  And  you,  my  poor  ones,  the  oppressed,  despised  and 
rejected  of  this  world  ;  you  too,  alas !  will  be  forsaken  and 
ridiculed,  even  as  I  am.  The  rich,  in  their  abundance,  care 
nothing  for  you ;  "they  may,  indeed,  cast  you  a  morsel  of 
bread,  but  nothing  more,  since  they  too  are  poor,  having 
nothing  but  their  gold.  As  for  inviting  you  to  the  spiritual 
banquet,  and  making  men  of  you,  the  world  has  not  yet 
thought  of  it,  nor  will  it  for  a  long  time.  But  God  who  Is 
in  heaven,  God  who  cares  even  for  His  sparrows,  God  will 
not  forget  you,  but  will  comfort  you,  even  as  He  will  com- 
fort and  not  forget  me." 

By  thus  insisting  on  writing  in  spite  of  his  weakness  and 
suffering,  the  old  man  had  several  times  taken  cold,  and 
thus  considerably  increased  the  gravity  of  his  symptoms. 
His  complaint  was  gravel,  and  as  the  excessive  pain  neces- 
sitated frequent  surgical  aid,  the  doctor  wished  to  have  his 
patient  near  him  at  Brugg. 

Gottlieb  Pestalozzi  accordingly  hired  a  small  room l  in  the 

1  The  room  in  which  Pestalozzi  died  is  now  the  post-office. 


PESTALOZZrS  LAST   YEARS.  365 

principal  street  of  the  little  town,  and  when  everything  was 
prepared,  although  there  was  thick  snow  on  the  ground, 
took  the  old  man  there,  well  wrapped  up,  in  a  closed  sledge. 
This  was  on  the  15th  of  February,  1827. 

The  next  day  Mr.  Lippe  arrived  from  Lenzburg  to  see  his 
old  friend,  but  found  him  unconscious.  In  the  morning  a 
paroxysm  of  frightful  pain  had  been  followed  by  delirium, 
which  had  ceased  about  noon,  since  when  he  had  not  spoken. 

By  four  o'clock  the  next  morning  the  crisis  was  past,  and 
the  old  man  regained  consciousness.  He  seemed  easy  and 
composed,  helped  to  arrange  his  bed,  and  talked  to  those 
about  him  for  nearly  an  hour. 

"  My  children,"  he  said,  "  you  cannot  carry  out  my  work, 
but  you  can  do  good  to  those  about  you,  you  can  give  land 
to  the  poor  to  cultivate.  As  for  me,  I  am  soon  to  read  in  the 
book  of  truth.  I  forgive  my  enemies  ;  may  they  find  peace, 
even  as  I  am  now  about  to  find  the  peace  which  is  eternal. 
I  should  have  been  glad  to  live  six  weeks  longer  to  finish 
my  writing,  and  yet  I  thank  God  for  taking  me  away  from 
this  earthly  life.  You,  my  children,  remain  quietly  at 
Neuhof,  and  look  for  your  happiness  in  your  home.':  l 

About  six  o'clock  Doctor  Stsebli  arrived.  There  was  no 
fever,  no  pain,  but  he  saw  that  the  end  was  near ;  indeed, 
little  more  than  an  hour  afterwards,  Pestalozzi,  with  a  smile 
on  his  lips,  quietly  breathed  his  last.  "  He  seemed  to  be 
smiling  at  the  angel  who  had  come  to  fetch  him,"  was  the 
testimony  of  those  who  were  present.  His  grandson's  wife 
had  watched  over  him  tenderly  to  the  last. 

Pestalozzi's  great-grandson,  Colonel  Charles  Pestalozzi, 
of  the  Zurich  Polytechnic  School,  who  at  this  time  was  not 
more  than  three  years  old,  relates  that  he  has  often  heard 
his  mother  talk  of  his  great-grandfather's  last  days.  Always 
kind  and  thoughtful,  patient  when  suffering  most  keenly, 
cheerful  and  affectionate  the  moment  he  was  free  from  pain, 
grateful  for  the  least  attention,  and  calmly  happy  even  at 
the  moment  of  death,  he  had  borne  his  sufferings  with  a 
fortitude  that  she  never  wearied  of  recalling. 

1  Several  biographers  place  this  speech  before  the  removal  from 
Nenhof.  It  is  an  open  question.  \Ve  have  taken  the  view  which  seemed,' 
after  careful  investigation,  to  be  the  best. 


366         PESTALOZZ1 ' :    HIS  LIFE  AND    WORK. 

On  the  19th,  the  mortal  remains  of  the  great  philosopher 
and  philanthropist  were  committed  to  the  ground  in  the 
village  of  Birr,  near  Neuhof.  The  news  of  his  death  had 
scarcely  reached  Aarau,  and  people  did  not  expect  the  inter- 
ment to  take  place  so  soon  j  the  communications,  moreover, 
were  almost  interrupted  by  the  snow.  The  consequence  was 
that  many  who  loved  and  respected  Pestalozzi  were  absent 
from  the  ceremony,  though  the  inhabitants  of  the  neighbour- 
hood were  there  in  great  numbers. 

The  coffin  was  borne  by  schoolmasters,  and  was  followed 
by  Gottlieb  and  a  few  relations  and  friends,  villagers  and 
children  being  the  only  other  mourners.  As  this  simple 
procession  entered  the  churchyard,  it  was  met  by  some 
eighty  village  schoolmasters  of  the  district  chanting  a  psalm. 
In  the  course  of  his  address,  Pastor  Steiger  said:  "If  ever 
Pestalozzi  was  truly  great,  it  was  in  his  last  days.  Why 
could  we  not  all  be  witnesses  of  his  patience  and  resignation, 
of  the  calm  trust  with  which  he  relinquished  the  world  and 
all  his  earthly  hopes  ? "  The  simple,  touching  ceremony 
closed  with  a  hymn  that  had  been  expressly  composed  for 
the  occasion  by  Pastor  Fnehlich. 

When  Pestalozzi  had  been  asked  what  sort  of  monument 
should  be  raised  to  him,  he  had  replied  :  "  A  rough,  unhewn 
stone,  such  as  I  myself  have  always  been."  He  had  asked 
to  be  buried  at  Birr,  near  the  school,  without  pomp,  and 
followed  by  children  and  peasants.  This  last  wish  at  least 
had  been  fulfilled.  His  grave  was  in  a  narrow  strip  of  the 
churchyard,  lying  between  the  church  and  the  school,  and 
for  nineteen  years  was  marked  by  a  single  rose-tree.  As  it 
had  then  become  necessary  to  rebuild  the  school,  the  Great 
Council  of  Aargau,  feeling  that  the  country  still  owed  a  debt 
to  the  memory  of  its  immortal  benefactor,  decided  to  honour 
him  by  some  more  fitting  memorial.  A  side  of  the'  new 
school  was  chosen  for  the  purpose,  and  as  the  buildings  still 
adjoined  the  churchyard,  although  a  new  grave  was  neces- 
sary, it  was  only  a  few  steps  distant  from  the  old  one. 

The  inauguration  took  place  on  the  12th  of  January,  1846, 
the  hundredth  anniversary  of  Pestalozzi's  birth,  in  the 
presence  of  delegates  from  the  Council  of  Public  Instruction, 
the  various  school-commissions,  and  many  other  public 
bodies.  A  great  crowd  of  other  people  were  also  present. 
The  singing  of  several  choral  societies  alternated  with  the 


PESTALOZZPS  LAST   YEARS.  367 

sound  of  the  church  bells,  whilst  the  coffin  was  being  raised 
from  its  original  resting-place,  and  lowered,  covered  with 
wreaths,  into  the  new  tomb.1 

The  memorial  is  plain  and  suitable  :  above  the  grave  is 
a  paved  space  enclosed  by  an  iron  railing,  and  in  the  middle 
of  the  wall  a  niche  containing  the  bust  of  Pestalozzi,  be- 
low which  is  the  following  inscription  : 

Here  Rests 
HENRY  PESTALOZZI  ; 

Born  at  Zurich,  the  12th  of  January,  1746, 
Died  at  Brugg,  the  17th  of  February,  1827. 

Saviour  of  the  poor  at  Neuhof,  at  Stanz  the  father  of 
orphans,  at  Burgdorf  and  Munchenbuchsee  founder  of  the 
popular  school,  at  Yverdun  the  educator  of  humanity ;  man. 
Christian,  and  citizen.  All  for  others,  nothing  for  himself, 
Peace  to  his  ashes. 

To  OUR  FATHER  PESTALOZZI 
Grateful  Aargau. 

1  The  same  day  witnessed  the  inauguration  of  a  still  worthier  memorial 
to  this  faithful  friend  of  the  poor. 

Pestalozzi's  friends  had  thought  that  the  best  way  of  celebrating  his 
jubilee  would  be  to  found  at  last  at  Neuhof  the  poor-school  he  had  so  long 
di  earned  of.  A  printed  appeal,  circulated  in  Switzerland  and  abroad, 
had  at  once  brought  in  a  considerable  sum  of  money,  but  unfortunately 
this  first  generous  impulse  had  soon  been  checked  by  the  political  and 
religious  discords  which  were  at  that  time  troubling  the  Confederation. 
Not  being  in  a  position  then  to  purchase  Neuhof,  the  committee  had 
been  obliged  to  begin  operations  on  some  land  at  Olsberg,  near  Khein- 
felden,  the  property  of  the  State.  There,  under  the  name  of  the  Pexta- 
l«zzi  Foundation,  a  poor-school  was  established  for  children  of  both  sexes, 
with  separate  divisions  for  Catholics  and  Protestants.  It  has  lately  been 
proposed  to  enlarge  this  foundation  by  the  addition  of  a  training-school 
for  forming  teachers  for  similar  institutions,  and  of  an  establishment  for 
reforming  vicious  children. 

French  Switzerland  ought  also  to  have  had  her  Pestalozzi  Foundation. 
An  appeal  sent  out  from  Yverdun  had  been  everywhere  well  received, 
and  success  seemed  certain  ;  in  consequence,  however,  of  the  revolution 
of  1845,  and  the  resignation  of  the  Protestant  ministers,  party  feeling 
ran  so  high  in  the  canton  that  each  side,  dreading  the  political  and 
religious  tendency  of  the  other,  insisted  on  having  the  direction  of  the 
establishment  in  its  own  hands,  and  this  being  impossible,  the  enterprise 
had  to  be  abandoned. 


CHAPTER  XVII. 

PESTALOZZl's'  LAST  WRITINGS. 

The  "  Song  of  the  Swan."      The  "  Experiences  of  My    Life.* 
Discourse  read  at  Langenthal. 

WE  were  unwilling  to  interrupt  the  sad  story  just  concluded 
to  speak  of  the  works  written  by  Pestalozzi  during  the  two 
last  years  of  his  life. 

The  Song  of  the  Swan  and  the  Experiences  were  origin- 
ally intended  as  parts  of  the  same  work,  but  the  author 
soon  decided  to  keep  them  separate ;  a.nd  it  was  well  that  he 
did  so,  for  the  first  would  certainly  have  suffered  from  being 
connected  with  the  second. 

In  the  life  of  Pestalozzi  by  J.  Paroz,  there  is  an  interest- 
ing summary  of  the  Song  of  the  Swan  in  the  form  of  a 
discourse  supposed  to  be  spoken  by  Pestalozzi;  but  any  such 
reconstruction  is  necessarily  too  artificial  and  too  arbitrary 
to  leave  the  reader's  judgment  thoroughly  unbiassed.  We 
think  it  best  not  to  attempt  anything  of  the  sort,  but  to  give 
the  author's  principal  ideas  in  his  own  words.  In  this  way, 
by  a  series  of  quotations,  we  shall  be  able  to  convey  some 
idea  of  this  supreme  appeal,  addressed  by  the  octogenarian 
to  his  contemporaries  in  vain,  but  from  which  posterity  may 
yet  profit. 

THE  SONG  OF  THE  SwAN.1 
Preface. 

"  For  half  a  century  I  have  been  seeking  with  unwearied 
activity  to  simplify  the  elementary  instruction  of  the  people, 
and  find  for  it  such  a  path  as  Nature  follows  in  developing 
and  perfecting  a  man's  various  powers.  During  all  this 
time,  despite  my  many  weaknesses,  I  have  worked  zealously 
for  this  one  end.  My  want  of  skill  has  indeed  often  shown 

1  In  both  Cotta's  and  Sejffartb's  editions. 


PESTALOZZrS  LAST   WRITINGS.  369 

itself  in  the  conception  and  execution  of  my  enterprises,  and 
has  brought  upon  me  endless  sorrows  ;  but  till  now  I  have 
borne  them  with  unfailing  patience,  and  without  ever  inter- 
rupting my  serious  efforts  towards  my  end. 

"  It  is  impossible  that  during  such  a  life  I  should  not  have 
made  important  experiments  in  the  subject  of  my  investi- 
gations, and  that  I  should  not  have  arrived  at  certain  results 
to  which  the  friends  of  humanity  and  education  cannot  be 
indifferent. 

"  I  am  now  eighty  years  old,  an  age  at  which  a  man  is 
wrong  not  to  think  of  himself  every  day  as  on  his  death-bed. 
I  have  felt  this  more  than  ever  for  some  time  past,  and 
hence  I  am  unwilling  any  longer  to  put  off  publishing  an 
account  of  my  experiments,  an  account  which  will  be  as 
clear  and  precise  as  I  can  make  it,  and  will  tell  not  only  of 
what  has  succeeded,  but  also  of  what  has  failed.  This  will 
explain  the  title  of  my  work. 

"  Friends  of  humanity  !  take  it  for  what  it  is,  and  do  not 
expect  more  literary  graces  from  me  than  I  am  able  to  give. 
My  life  has  produced  nothing  complete  or  perfect,  nor  can 
my  writing  do  so  either.  Such  as  it  is,  grant  it  an  attentive 
examination,  and  whenever  you  happen  upon  a  truth  that 
you  think  likely  to  benefit  mankind,  do  what  you  can  for  it, 
less  for  my  sake  than  for  that  of  the  end  I  have  in  view.  I 
ask  nothing  better  than  to  be  put  on  one  side,  and  replaced 
by  others,  in  all  questions  that  others  understand  better  than 
I,  so  that  they  may  be  enabled  to  serve  humanity  better  than 
I  have  ever  been  able  to  do. 

"  I  know  not  if  it  be  necessary  to  add  that  a  man  of  my 
age  repeats  himself  often  and  deliberately,  and  that  when 
his  end  is  near,  nay,  even  on  his  death-bed,  he  cannot 
repeat  himself  enough,  nor  weary  of  speaking  of  what  he 
has  in  his  heart  till  his  last  breath.  But  nobody  takes  this 
amiss ;  most  people  indeed  are  touched  by  it.  I  hope  then 
that,  considering  my  age  and  position,  I  shall  be  forgiven  if 
in  the  following  pages  I  repeat  myself  too  often,  and  forget 
many  important  matters  which  in  other  circumstances  I 
should  not  have  forgotten. 

"  As  for  those  who  might  like  to  have  a  more  complete 
knowledge  of  my  educational  experiments  and  institutions, 
I  must  beg  them  to  read  the  history  of  my  undertakings, 
which  is  to  appear  with  the  present  volume." 


370         PESTALOZZI:    HIS  LIFE  AND    WORK. 


I.     (Passages  taken  from  pages  1  to  9.) 

"Examine  everything,  and  hold  fast  to  that  which  is  good! 
If  anything  better  has  matured  in  you,  add  it  in  truth  and 
love  t'  what  in  truth  and  love  I  am  attempting  to  give  you 
here ! 

"  The  idea  of  elementary  education,  to  which  I  have 
devoted  my  life,  consists  in  re-establishing  the  course  of 
Nature,  and  in  developing  and  improving  the  tendencies  and 
powers  of  humanity. 

"  But  what  is  human  nature  ?  "It  is,  at  bottom,  that  which 
distinguishes  the  man  from  the  animal,  that  which  should 
predominate  and  control  whatever  they  have  in  common. 
Thus  elementary  education  must  aim  at  developing  heart, 
mind,  and  body  in  such  a  way  as  to  bring  the  flesh  into  sub- 
jection to  the  spirit. 

"  Now  it  is  evident  that  this  development  must  follow  a 
certain  course,  that  this  course  must  be  the  course  of  Nature, 
and  that  it  is  regulated  by  immutable  laws. 

"Indeed,  however  .great  the  diversities  of  men  may  be, 
they  do  not  in  any  way  aifect  either  the  unity  of  human 
nature  or  the  universality  of  the  laws  which  govern  its 
development. 

"  These  laws  apply  to  the  whole  of  a  man's  nature,  and 
serve  to  maintain  the  necessary  harmony  between  his  heart, 
his  intellect,  and  his  physical  powers.  Any  educational 
method  which  neglects  either  of  these  three  sides,  does  but 
encourage  a  partial  development.  False  to  Nature,  it  pro- 
duces no  real  and  lasting  results;  it  is  as  sounding  brass 
or  tinkling  cymbal,  and  exercises  a  fatal  influence  on  the 
harmony  of  the  natural  development. 

"  The  idea  of  elementary  education  involves  the  equili- 
brium of  a  man's  powers,  and  the  equilibrium  of  the  powers 
involves  the  natural  development  of  each  of  them.  Each 
power  develops  according  to  the  particular  laws  of  its 
nature,  which  laws  are  not  the  same  for  heart,  mind  and 
body. 

"And  yet  all  human  powers  may  be  developed  in  the 
simplest  way  by  use.  Thus  a  man  lays  the  foundation  of 
his  moral  life  of  love  and  faith,  by  the  practice  of  these 
virtues  ;  of  his  intellectual  life  of  thought,  by  thinking  ;  of 
his  industrial  life,  by  making  use  of  his  physical  powers. 


PESTALOZZrS  LAST   WRITINGS.  371 

"  Indeed,  man  is  impelled  by  the  very  nature  of  the  powers 
he  possesses  to  use  and  train  them,  and  thus  to  develop  and 
improve  them,  as  far  at  least  as  they  are  susceptible  of 
development  and  improvement.  These  powers  exist  at  first 
but  in  germ,  but  the  desire  to  use  them  increases  with 
every  successful  attempt,  though  it  decreases  and  sometimes 
disappears  with  failure,  especially  if  the  failure  should  cause 
suffering. 

"  Further,  the  idea  of  elementary  education  consists  in  so 
regulating  the  use  of  the  different  powers  that  every  effort 
shall  succeed,  and  none  fail ;  and  this  must  be  the  case  no 
less  with  the  intellectual  and  physical  than  with  the  moral 
powers. 

"The  natural  means  for  this  early  education  are  to  be 
looked  for  in  the  enlightened  love,  faith,  and  tenderness  of 
parents,  made  wise  by  a  knowledge  of  all  the  conquests 
humanity  has  won. 

"The  method  of  Nature  is  in  its  principle  holy  and  Divine, 
but  if  left  to  itself,  it  is  often  disturbed  and  perverted  by 
the  predominance  of  the  animal  instincts.  Our  duty,  our 
heart's  chief  desire,  the  aim  of  our  faith  and  wisdom,  should 
be  to  keep  it  truly  human,  to  quicken  it  'by  means  of  the 
Divine  element  within  us. 

"  Let  us  now  examine  the  natural  and  fundamental  means 
of  human  development,  from  the  three  sides  of  the  moral 
life,  the  intellectual  life,  and  the  industrial  life." 

n. — THE  MORAL  LIFE.    (Pages  9  to  15.) 

"The  first  cares  of  a  mother  for  her  child  are  for  its 
physical  needs ;  she  satisfies  these  with  unfailing  tender- 
ness, enjoys  the  child's  contentment,  smiles  at  it  with  love, 
and  receives  an  answering  smile  of  love,  trust,  and  gratitude. 
These  are  the  first  manifestations  of  the  moral  and  religious 
development. 

''  But  the  child  must  also  feel  the  peace  which  proceeds 
from  satisfied  needs  ;  this  peace  of  the  soul  is  indeed  an 
essential  condition  of  the  moral  development.  It  is  no  sooner 
replaced  by  anxiety  and  trouble  than  love,  trust,  and  grati- 
tude give  way  to  selfishness,  pride,  and  other  evil  passions. 

"  This  want  of  peace  in  a  child's  soul  often  results  from 
its  needs  not  being  promptly  satisfied ;  after  a  time,  expecta- 


372          PESTALOZZI:    HIS  LIFE  AND    WORK. 

tion  becomes  painful,  and  irritates  the  child,  so  that  when 
at  last  the  long  looked-for  satisfaction  arrives,  it  no  longer 
awakens  a  quiet  pleasure,  the  source  of  love,  trust,  and 
gratitude,  but  merely  appeals  to  the  violent  instincts  of  an 
animal. 

"This  discontent  in  a  child  often  proceeds  too  from  quite 
an  opposite  cause,  from  the  excess  of  care,  that  is,  with 
which  we  try  to  procure  it  pleasures  by  anticipating  all  its 
wants  and  encouraging  its  pride  or  animal  tastes.  In  this 
way,  instead  of  confining  ourselves  to  satisfying  real  needs, 
we  awaken  a  certain  covetousness,  which  gives  no  peace. 
And  as  this  covetousness  cannot  always  be  satisfied,  the 
child  is  necessarily  exposed  to  disappointments  and  refusals, 
which  not  only  sour  its  temper,  but  stop  the  development 
of  good  in  its  heart. 

"A  good  mother  tries  to  avoid  each  of  these  two  ways 
of  destroying  her  child's  contentment,  and  is  enabled  to  do 
so  by  her  tenderness  and  by  the  natural  tact  of  her  maternal 
instinct.  She  is  much  helped,  too,  when  the  circumstances 
of  the  home  are  moderately  comfortable,  by  the  ordinary 
conditions  of  daily  life. 

"  Unfortunately,  however,  it  too  often  happens  that  a 
mother's  tenderness  is  paralyzed  by  vice  and  her  tact  ruined 
by  error  and  prejudice,  and  that  the  circumstances  of  the 
home  are  either  so  straitened  as  to  prevent  the  immediate 
satisfaction  of  all  the  child's  wants,  or  so  easy  that  there  is 
a  temptation  to  anticipate  them,  often  indeed  to  exaggerate 
them,  and  increase  its  real  wants  by  artificial  ones. 

"  When  the  mother  succeeds  in  keeping  the  child  con- 
tented, the  benefit  is  feU  by  every  member  of  the  family. 
The  home  becomes  a  cer  ;re  of  moral  and  religious  life,  and 
the  child,  whose  trust  in  its  parents  nothing  can  shake,  loves 
v  hat  they  love,  believes  what  they  believe,  and  worships 
the  same  God  and  Saviour. 

"  But  when  this  peace  is  wanting  from  the  very  cradle, 
the  home,  troubled  in  every  part,  is  no  longer  a  sanctuary 
of  peace  and  happiness,  and  its  good  influence  on  the  moral 
and  religious  development  disappears." 

III. — THE  INTELLECTUAL  LIFE.     (Pages  15  to  23.) 

'  "The  starting-point  of  thought  is  sense-impression,  the 
direct  impression,  that  is,  produced  by  the  world  on  our 


PESJALOZZrS  LAST  WRITINGS.  373 

internal  and  external  senses.  Thus  the  power  of  thinking 
is  formed  and  developed  first  of  all  by  the  impressions  of  the 
moral  world  upon  our  moral  sense  and  by  those  of  the 
physical  world  upon  our  bodily  senses. 

"  These  impressions,  acting  on  the  understanding  of  the 
child,  give  him  his  first  ideas,  and  at  the  same  time  awaken 
in  him  the  desire  to  express  them,  by  signs  first,  then  by 
words. 

"  To  speak,  we  must  have  not  only  ideas,  but  practised  and 
supple  organs.  And  further,  we  can  only  speak  clearly  and 
exactly  of  those  things  from  which  we  have  received  clear 
and  exact  impressions. 

"  To  teach  a  child  to  talk,  then,  we  must  first  make  him 
see,  hear,  and  touch  many  things,  and  especially  things  which 
please  him,  so  that  he  may  readily  give  his  attention  to 
them ;  we  must  also  make  him  observe  them  in  order,  observ- 
ing each  thoroughly  before  he  proceeds  to  another.  At  the 
same  time  he  must  have  constant  practice  in  putting  his 
impressions  into  words.  All  this  is  what  a  good  mother  does 
for  her  child  when  it  is  beginning  to  speak. 

"  Afterwards  a  foreign  or  dead  language  may  be  learned 
differently ;  partly  because  the  organs  of  speech  have  already 
been  trained,  partly  because  most  of  the  fundamental  ideas 
are  already  there,  and  lastly,  because  the  mother-tongue 
supplies  the  child  with  a  point  of  comparison. 

"  But  before  a  child  can  compare  things  and  exercise  his 
judgment  about  them,  his  thought  must  also  have  practice 
in  the  two  other  chief  elements  of  human  knowledge,  number 
and  form. 

"  The  fundamental  elements,  then,  that  serve  to  develop 
the  power  of  thought  are  language,  number,  and  form,  and 
it  is  the  business  of  education  to  present  these  elements  to 
the  child's  mind  in  the  simplest  possible  manner,  and  in 
psychological  and  progressive  order." 

Pestalozzi  here  places  the  following  sentence,  which  he 
Lad  written  in  1824,  and  which  shows  that  the  old  man  had 
retained  certain  illusions  to  the  end : 

"  What  was  done  at  Burgdorf,  and  what  has  since  been 
done,  even  more  thoroughly,  at  Yverdun,  for  the  elementary 
gtudy  of  number  and  form,  has  sufficed,  in  spite  of  many 


374         PESTALOZZI:    HIS  LIFE  AND    WORK. 

dangers,  to  keep  the  latter  establishment  from  ruin  ;  and  even 
now,  that  it  seems  near  its  end,  I  am  still,  thanks  to  this 
spark,  inclined  to  hope  great  things  from  it." 

IV. — THE  INDUSTRIAL  LIFE.    (Pages  23  to  26.) 

u  Art,  practical  knowledge,  bodily  skill,  whatever  in  short 
enables  a  man  to  make  what  he  has  conceived  in  his  mind, 
is  what  we  call  the  industrial  life.  What  are  its  fundamental 
elements  ?  How  may  they  be  developed  ? 

"Its  fundamental  elements  are  two:  the  power  of  the 
thought  within,  the  practical  skill  of  the  senses  and  limbs 
without.  To  be  completely  useful,  it  must  be  the  outcome 
*bf  the  harmonious  development  of  heart,  mind,  and  body.  We 
have  already  spoken  of  the  two  first ;  it  remains  for  us  now 
to  consider  the  fundamental  elements  of  physical  develop- 
ment. 

"Just  as  elementary  exercises  in  number  and  form  are 
necessary  as  training  for  the  intellectual  life,  so  elementary 
exercises  in  art  and  practical  work  are  a  necessary  part  of 
that  physical  training  which  is  essential  to  success  in  the 
industrial  life.  Technical  apprenticeship  is  but  one  particular 
form  of  this  training. 

"  And  further,  just  as  our  moral  and  intellectual  powers 
are  naturally  inclined  to  be  active,  and  attract  us  to  what- 
ever exercises  them,  so  our  industrial  powers  have  a  similar 
natural  tendency,  and  attract  us  to  whatever  exercises  and 
develops  them. 

"  The  physical  instinct  which  leads  us  to  use  our  senses 
and  limbs  is  generally  connected  with  our  animal  nature,  and 
needs  no  assistance  from  us.  But  this  instinct  must  be  sub- 
ordinated to  the  moral  and  intellectual  elements  which  con- 
stitute the  superiority  of  human  nature.  To  bring  about  this 
subordination  is  the  essential  work  of  education. 

"  The  exercise  of  the  physical  powers  in  due  subordination 
to  the  moral  and  intellectual  powers  results  naturally  from 
the  discipline  of  a  well-regulated  and  laborious  family  life. 

"  This  exercise,  however,  varies  enormously  with  the  par- 
ticular circumstances  of  each  family,  but  even  amidst  this 
diversity  is  to  be  found  the  general  law  of  all  human  develop- 
ment. Thus  the  child  always  begins  by  fixing  his  attention 
and  observing ;  he  then  proceeds  to  imitate,  at  first  slavishly, 


PESTALOZZrS  LAST  WRITINGS.  375 

but  presently  with  more  and  more  freedom,  till  at  last  inven- 
tion comes,  and  he  produces  spontaneously." 

V. — MY  IDEA  OF  ELEMENTARY  EDUCATION.  (Pages  26  to  137.) 

"  It  consists  in  developing,  according  to  the  natural  law,  the 
child's  various  powers,  moral,  intellectual,  and  physical,  with 
such  subordination  as  is  necessary  to  their  perfect  equilibrium. 

"  This  equilibrium  alone  can  produce  a  peaceful,  happy 
life,  and  one  likely  to  profit  the  general  welfare.  Piety, 
faith,  and  love  bring  a  man  peace,  and  are  indeed  its  con- 
ditions, for  without  these  virtues  the  highest  development  of 
intellect,  art  or  industry  brings  no  rest,  but  leaves  the  man 
full  of  trouble,  uneasiness,  and  discontent. 

"  As  an  individual,  the  man  who  is  not  at  peace  with  him- 
self generally  feels  his  misery  and  weakness.  But  as  a 
member  of  a  whole,  of  a  party,  of  a  sect,  he  no  longer  feels  his 
position ;  he  is  blinded,  dazzled.  He  thinks  himself  strong  in 
the  strength  of  others,  skilful  with  their  skill.  Faith  in  a 
majority,  a  party,  a  sect,  takes  the  place  of  faith  in  himself ; 
loyalty  to  a  society  takes  the  place  of  virtue,  public  opinion 
that  of  truth. 

"Loyalty,  whether  it  be  to  a  religious  sect  or  a  political 
party,  comes  rather  from  the  flesh  than  the  spirit ;  it  is  the 
business  of  elementary  education  to  correct  and  weaken  it  by 
harmoniously  developing  the  personal  powers  in  a  really 
religious  direction. 

"  I  now  come  to  consider  the  idea  of  elementary  education 
from  the  point  of  view  of  the  means  of  instruction.  From  its 
very  nature,  it  demands  the  general  simplification  of  its  means, 
which  simplification  was  the  starting-point  of  all  the  edu- 
cational labours  of  my  life.  At  first  I  desired  nothing  else, 
but  merely  soiight  to  render  the  ordinary  means  of  instruction 
for  the  people  so  simple  as  to  permit  of  their  being  employed 
in  every  family.  And  so,  in  every  branch  of  popular  know- 
ledge or  talent,  I  set  to  work  to  organize  a  graduated  series 
of  exercises,  the  starting-point  of  which  was  within  every- 
body's comprehension,  and  the  unbroken  action  of  which, 
always  exercising  the  child's  powers  without  exhausting  them, 
resulted  in  a  continuous,  easy,  and  attractive  progress,  in  which 
knowledge  and  the  application  of  knowledge  were  always 
intimately  connected.  . 


376         PESTALOZZ1;    HIS  LIFE  AND    WORK. 

"  There  exist  general  laws  for  the  development  of  the  human 
powers  and  for  their  application  in  every  direction  of  their 
activity,  but  there  is  also  a  great  diversity  in  the  methods  of 
their  development,  according  to  the  objects  to  which  they  are 
applied,  and  according  to  the  position,  faculties,  and  character 
of  individuals. 

"  It  is  the  duty  of  elementary  education  to  reconcile  these 
diversities  with  the  natural  and  general  law,  and  to  bring 
about  a  complete  development  of  the  different  powers,  what- 
ever may  be  the  particular  methods  of  their  application.  It 
does  this  by  making  every  step  the  child  takes  complete  and 
perfect  before  allowing  him  to  take  another.  Thus  the  child 
contracts  the  habit  and  the  need  of  doing  well  all  he  does,  and 
of  tending  towards  perfection,  not  only  in  the  matter  of  his 
instruction,  but  in  his  life  generally. 

"Before  proceeding  to  point  out  the  consequences  which 
result  from  this  point  of  view,  there  is  one  further  question 
that  I  must  consider  :  Is  not  my  idea  of  elementary  education 
a  dream  ?  Can  it  be  made  the  foundation  of  practical  work  ? 
On  all  sides,  I  am  told,  people  are  asking:  Where  has  it 
really  been  realized  ? 

"  I  answer :  Everywhere  and  nowhere.  Everywhere  par- 
tially, nowhere  completely. 

"  It  nowhere  exists  as  a  method  that  has  been  fully  organized 
and  applied  to  everything.  There  is  no  school  or  institute 
whose  organization  is  entirely  elementary. 

"The  knowledge  and  talents  of  the  human  race,  even  of 
its  highest  and  best  representatives,  are  and  will  always 
remain  incomplete  and  fragmentary.  There  are  not,  and 
never  will  be,  conditions  admitting  of  the  complete  realiza- 
tion of  the  great  idea  of  elementary  education.  Human 
nature  itself  offers  an  insurmountable  obstacle  to  it,  since 
the  weakness  of  our  nature,  the  Divine  element  of  which  is 
hampered  by  the  desires  of  the  flesh,  does  not  allow  us  to 
look  for  complete  perfection  in  anything.  And  what  is  true 
in  the  case  of  individual  men  is  still  more  true  in  the  case 
of  the  general  education  of  the  human  race.  No  institution, 
whatever  its  resources  may  be,  will  ever  be  able  to  realize 
and  spread  over  a  country  an  elementary  method  of  instruc- 
tion and  education  at  once  general,  complete,  and  practical. 
In  this  respect  the  idea,  it  is  true,  is  not  realizable,  and  is 
but  a  dream. 


PESTALOZZPS  LAST  WRITINGS.  377 

"  And  yet,  it  has  already  been  partially  realized,  not  only 
in  institutions  and  schools,  but  in  families ;  it  has  already 
been  the  cause  of  much  good  and  much  progress.  At  all 
times  and  in  every  country  it  has  been  the  condition  and 
the  means  of  the  harmonious  development  of  man's  powers*, 
and  of  the  supremacy  of  the  spirit  over  the  flesh.  It  is  the 
condition  and  means  of  true  civilization,  of  the  improveinen  t 
of  humanity,  an  improvement  which  is  our  essential  and 
necessary  object,  for  which  we  shall  never  cease  working, 
and  which  we  dare  not  declare  to  be  impossible.  In  this 
respect  the  idea  of  elementary  education  is  no  longer  un- 
realizable ;  it  is  no  longer  a  dream,  and  we  must  strive  for 
it  unceasingly,  as  we  strive  for  good  and  perfection. 

"  My  idea  of  elementary  education  was  suggested  to  me 
by  the  sight  of  the  evils  I  saw  about  me,  evils  resulting 
from  the  routine  of  the  ordinary  education.  Everywhere 
the  course  pursued  was  in  direct  opposition  to  that  of  Nature, 
everywhere  the  flesh  predominated  over  the  spirit,  and  the 
Divine  element  was  ignored ;  everywhere  selfishness  and  the 
passions  were  made  the  motives  of  action,  and  everywhere 
mechanical  habits  took  the  place  of  intelligent  spontaneity. 

"  I  had  no  other  strength  in  me  but  that  of  a  heart  full  of 
compassion  and  love  for  my  fellow-men ;  I  had  neither 
ability,  talent  nor  practical  skill.  Against  me  were  old 
institutions  and  habits,  the  idleness,  interests,  and  passions 
of  people  cleverer  than  myself.  I  was  like  a  child  struggling 
with  grown  men. 

"  The  idea  which  I  felt  to  be  my  strength  was  but  an 
impracticable  dream ;  impracticable,  that  is,  in  proportion  to 
the  blindness  and  hardness  of  men  governed  by  routine  and 
selfishness,  and  by  indifference  to  progress  and  the  spiritual 
interests  of  humanity.  In  certain  of  its  applications,  and 
for  certain  minds,  this  idea  has  already  ceased  to  be  a  dream, 
and  the  more  civilization  advances,  the  more  of  a  reality 
will  it  become,  though  it  can  never  reach  absolute  perfec- 
tion. 

"  It  is  life  that  educates.  Such  is  the  principle  which  has 
guided  me  in  all  my  experiments  in  elementary  education, 
the  results  of  which  we  will  now  consider  from  the  moral, 
intellectual,  and  industrial  points  of  view. 

"  On  the  moral  side,  elementary  education  is  connected 
with  the  home ;  for  its  chief  methods  are  to  be  found  in  the 
26 


378         PESTALOZZI ' :    HIS  LIFE  AND    WORK. 

domestic  affections,  those  natural  and  instinctive  sentiments 
that  have  been  implanted  by  God  in  humanity  as  the  eternal 
starting-points  of  love  and  faith,  or,  in  other  words,  of 
morality  and  religion.  In  our  institute,  it  is  true,  our  experi- 
ments did  not  begin  while  the  child  was  yet  in  the  cradle. 
And  yet  the  simpleness  of  our  methods  would  have  allowed 
us  to  use  them  for  the  moral  development  of  much  youngei 
children  than  those  entrusted  to  us.  The  child  loves  and 
believes  before  thinking  and  acting ;  the  influences  of  home 
captivate  him  and  develop  in  him  an  inner  sense  of  his  own 
moral  strength.  One  certain  result  of  our  experience,  and 
one  in  which  many  noble  men  have  rejoiced  besides  our- 
selves, is  that  the  methods  of  our  elementary  education, 
which  enabled  each  child  to  hand  on  his  small  stock  of 
acquirements  to  others,  showed  in  a  thousand  ways  their 
influence  on  the  moral  development,  and  caused  a  trust  and 
brotherly  love  to  reign  in  our  house  which,  with  the  artificial 
and  unnatural  methods  of  ordinary  education,  would  have 
been  almost  impossible. 

"On  the  intellectual  side,  it  is  again  life  that  educates; 
for  life  develops,  in  turn,  the  power  of  receiving  impressions, 
the  power  of  speaking,  and  the  power  of  thinking. 

"  The  power  of  receiving  impressions  by  observation  and 
experience  furnishes  the  child  with  ideas  and  sentiments. 

"  The  power  of  speaking  is  developed  by  use ;  it  enables 
the  child  to  make  himself  understood  and  to  understand 
others.  The  power  to  speak  does  not  proceed  from  the 
knowledge  of  the  language ;  it  is  rather  the  knowledge  of 
the  language  which  proceeds  from  the  power  to  speak. 

"  Speech  is  not  only  a  result  of  life,  but  a  condition  of 
life.  This  is  the  reason  why  its  development  varies  with 
social  position.  The  methods  of  teaching  then  must  vary 
too,  and  be  determined  by  the  resources  and  needs  of  earthly 
life.  But  there  are  other  needs  which  necessitate  a  higher 
development ;  man  does  not  live  by  bread  alone ;  every 
child  needs  a  religious  development,  needs  to  know  how  to 
pray  to  God  with  love  and  faith  and  in  simpleness  of  heart. 
This  need  is  a  privilege  which  ennobles  the  very  humblest, 
and,  since  it  can  only  be  satisfied  by  means  of  language  and 
thought,  develops  them  both  morally  and  intellectually. 

"  When  the  power  of  speaking  does  not  grow  out  of  life 
itself,  it  neither  develops  the  powers  of  the  mind  nor  pro- 


PESTALOZZl'S  LAST   WRITINGS.  379 

duces  anything  but  an  empty  verbiage.  This  is  an  evil  from 
which  all  classes  of  society  are  at  present  suffering,  the 
lowest  as  well  as  the  highest. 

"  The  power  of  receiving  impressions  and  the  power  of 
thinking  are  separated  by  a  wide  gulf,  which  can  only  be 
bridged  by  the  power  of  speaking. 

''Just  as  the  child  must  not  speak  of  anything  but  what  he 
has  himself  experienced,  so  he  must  not,  and  indeed  cannot, 
examine  his  thought  until  he  has  clearly  expressed  it  in 
words.  Grammar  is  practice  in  the  power  of  thinking,  a 
philosophical  study  of  the  thought  itself  as  well  as  of  the 
form  of  the  language  which  expresses  it.  The  child  must 
be  thoroughly  acquainted  with  this  form  first ;  then  only  is 
he  in  a  position  to  examine  and  study  it,  and  learn  foreign 
and  dead  languages. 

"  A  child  soon  learns  to  speak  a  foreign  language  with  an 
illiterate  person  who  merely  talks  to  him  without  any  attempt 
at  instruction,  whereas  he  does  not  learn  to  do  so  with  a 
skilled  teacher  who  adopts  the  mechanical,  grammatical 
method. 

"  It  is  also  in  life  itself  that  we  must  look  for  the  means 
of  developing  the  power  of  thinking. 

"  When  a  child's  sense-impressions  have  resulted  in  clear 
and  settled  ideas,  and  when  he  can  express  these  ideas  in 
speech,  he  feels  the  need  of  examining,  separating,  and  com- 
paring them ;  this  is  a  pleasure  to  which  life  itself  invites 
him,  and  in  which  he  finds  the  surest  aid  for  the  development 
of  his  judgment  and  power  of  thinking. 

"  To  encourage,  facilitate,  and  strengthen  this  development 
has  at  all  times  been  the  aim  of  education,  though  it  has 
paid  little  heed  to  the  laws  of  Nature  and  of  life. 

"  At  one  time  it  has  put  before  the  child  a  mass  of  ready- 
made  judgments  that  his  memory  alone  has  been  able  to 
grasp,  and  which,  instead  of  strengthening  his  thought,  have 
allowed  it  to  wither  in  inactivity.  At  another  time,  un-ier 
the  name  of  logic,  it  has  offered  him  a  system,  more  subtle 
than  clear,  of  the  eternal  rules  which  regulate  human 
thought ;  rules,  however,  which  are  but  a  closed  book  for  the 
child  who  does  not  yet  possess  the  power  of  thinking. 

"  The  best  elementary  exercises  for  developing  the  child's 
power  of  comparing  and  judging,  and  thus  strengthening  his 
thought,  are  those  in  number  and  form.  But  if  the  study 


380         PESTALOZZI:    HIS  LIFE  AND    WORK. 

of  number  and  form  is  to  have  any  real  educational  value,  it 
must  not  consist  in  shortened,  mechanical  methods,  but  in 
a  series  of  exercises  so  well  graduated  that  the  child  may 
take  pleasure  in  the  study,  and  succeed  in  it ;  that  his  think- 
ing powers  may  be  always  active ;  that  his  judgments  may 
be  really  his  own,  and  that  all  he  does  may  be  closely  con- 
nected with  his  real  everyday  life. 

"  On  the  industrial  or  artistic  side,  it  is  also  life  that 
educates.  The  industrial  power  comprises  two  elements  :  the 
or  e,  intellectual  and  interior,  which  is  but  the  power  of 
thought  developed  by  the  practical  study  of  language,  num- 
ber, and  form  ;  the  other,  physical  and  exterior,  which  is  but 
the  power  of  the  senses  and  limbs  developed  by  use.  These 
different  developments  must  be  in  keeping  with  the  idea  of 
elementary  education,  that  is,  with  the  method  of  Nature, 
and  must  result  from  a  connected  and  carefully  graduated 
series  of  exercises  founded  on  the  tendencies,  needs,  and 
natural  tastes  of  the  child. 

"  The  exercises  intended  to  develop  the  industrial  or 
artistic  power  must  also  be  determined  by  the  general  cir- 
cumstances of  the  child's  life ;  for  again  it  is  life  that 
educates. 

"  With  regard  to  art  and  industry  then,  it  is  in  the  condi- 
tions and  needs  of  actual  life,  and  in  the  heart  of  his  family, 
that  the  child  must  first  learn  how  to  use  and  improve  his 
powers. 

"  The  lesson  is  much  easier  and  much  more  fruitful  and 
valuable  in  those  families  which  have  to  work  hard  for  a 
livelihood  than  in  those  richer  homes  where  the  need  of  work 
is  not  felt,  and  where  the  child's  help  is  not  required. 

"  Thus  the  idea  of  elementary  education  applies  to  the 
physical  powers  as  well  as  to  those  of  the  heart  and  mind ; 
it  encourages  the  child's  activity  from  the  very  first ;  it  leads 
him  to  produce  results  which  are  really  his  own,  and  it 
gives  h:m  at  the  same  time  both  the  power  and  the  will  to 
rise  wi  hout  slavishly  copying  others. 

"  It  is  because  these  principles  of  education  are  still  so 
widely  ignored  that  we  see  so  many  people  entirely  without 
skill,  taste  or  originality.  This  is  why  ninety-nine  hun- 
dredths  of  the  world  unthinkingly  follow  the  stream  of  custom 
or  fashion,  incapable  of  producing  anything  by  themselves ; 
this,  too,  is  why,  even  in  the  upper  classes,  the  pleasure  of 


PESTALOZZI'S  LAST   WRITINGS. 


luxury  is  much  more  a  matter  of  vanity  than  a  matter  of 
taste." 

The  foregoing  is  a  condensation  of  the  first  third  of  the 
Song  of  the  Swan,  with  all  unnecessary  developments 
omitted.  We  have  not  space,  however,  to  treat  the  rest  of 
the  book  in  the  same  way,  nor  indeed  would  it  be  necessary, 
since  the  other  parts  have  far  less  importance.  Farther  on, 
too,  the  order  and  connection  of  the  ideas  are  sometimes  hard 
to  follow,  repetitions  abound,  developments  are  carried  too 
far,  and  the  style  generally  loses  much  of  its  force.  But  in 
spite  of  these  defects,  the  Song  of  the  Swan  is  full,  to  the 
end,  of  true,  original,  and  pregnant  ideas.  A  man  who  could 
reproduce  them  in  their  logical  order  with  clearness  and 
eloquence  would  make  an  admirable  treatise  on  education. 

We  can  do  no  more  than  glance  at  the  remaining  two- 
thirds  of  the  book,  quoting  a  few  of  the  most  striking 
ideas : 

"  A  child  accustomed  from  his  earliest  years  to  pray,  think, 
and  work,  is  already  more  than  half  educated. 

"  The  general  effect  of  the  methods  employed  by  the 
education  of  our  time  is  rather  to  send  us  forth  into  un- 
known regions  than  to  develop  that  which  is  within  us,  and 
of  which,  as  independent  beings,  we  stand  in  need. 

"Any  particular  knowledge  or  skill  is,  in  itself,  of  little 
value  as  a  means  of  development  and  education;  it  is  by 
combining  and  acting  on  each  other  that  they  give  harmony 
to  our  nature.  It  is  the  early  and  harmonious  cultivation  of 
all  branches  of  activity  that  develops  our  moral,  intellectual, 
and  physical  individuality. 

"  If  the  religious  element  does  not  penetrate  the  whole 
education,  it  has  but  little  influence  on  the  life,  and  remains 
formal  and  isolated. 

"  Religion  is  not  an  effect  of  what  we  do,  but  of  the  Divine 
element  within  us,  and  of  God's  grace. 

"  Elementary  education,  by  developing  all  a  man's  natural 
powers,  develops  also,  and  from  the  very  first,  the  real  reli- 
gious element  in  his  nature,  and  is  thus  in  perfect  accord 
with  Christianity." 

In  writing  the  Song  of  the  Sican,  Pestalozzi  had  been 
actuated  by  an  ardent  desire  to  save  from  his  own  fate  the 


382          PESTALOZZI:    HIS  LIFE  AND    WORK. 

fundamental  idea  of  the  edxicational  reform  he  was  urging  on 
humanity.  Fearing  to  see  it  involved  in  the  discredit  which 
the  failure  of  the  establishments  he  had  founded  had  brought 
upon  himself,  he  endeavours  to  show  that  this  failure  had 
been  entirely  his  own  fault ;  and  in  support  of  this  view,  he 
gives,  starting  from  his  earliest  education,  the  story  of  his 
life.  It  was  in  this  part  of  the  book  that  his  first  biogra- 
phers found  their  information,  information  true  and  valuable 
enough  in  itself,  but  so  fragmentary  that  for  forty  years, — till 
Morf 's  work  appeared  that  is, — there  was  no  complete  account 
of  the  great  educational  reformer.1 

In  the  course  of  hia  account  of  the  Burgdorf  institute, 
Pestalozzi  says : 

"  I  must  say  here  openly  what,  during  my  years  of  mis- 
fortune,- I  have  often  and  often  said  secretly  to  myself,  that 
at  the  very  first  step  I  took  in  Burgdorf  Castle  I  was  lost. 
I  was  indeed  embarking  on  a  career  that  could  only  end  in 
misfortune,  seeing  that  the  post  I  was  to  occupy  demanded 
the  very  strength  and  administrative  talents  I  so  terribly 
lacked." 

A  little  farther  on,  after  having  compared  his  institutes  to 
a  tower  of  Babel,  he  adds  : 

"This  confusion,  so  fatal  to  the  spirit  of  our  work,  was 
bound  at  last  to  come  to  an  end ;  and  this  being  so,  I  feel 
very  strongly  that  the  fall  of  my  establishments  at  Yverdun, 
since  it  gave  me  the  opportunity  I  so  much  wanted  of  placing 
my  work  once  more  upon  a  clear  basis,  should  be  looked  upon 
as  a  piece  of  good  fortune,  and  not  at  all  as  a  proof  of  the 
worthlessness  of  my  undertaking  and  of  my  inability  to  pro- 
duce any  useful  results." 

The  last  page  of  the  book  well  sums  up  its  character  and 
aim.  It  runs  as  follows  : 

"  At  this  solemn  moment,  I  dare,  calmly  and  earnestly,  to 
express  my  conviction  that  certain  ideas  connected  with  this 
great  question  of  elementary  education  have  ripened  in  me 
more  perhaps  than  in  most  other  men,  more  even  than  they 
would  have  done,  but  for  the  vicissitudes  and  misfortunes  of 

1  Morf 's  work  does  not  go  beyond  Burgdorf. 


PESTALOZZPS   LAST   WRITINGS.  383 

my  life.  The  results  of  my  work,  few  and  scattered,  it  is 
true,  seem  to  me  to  be  hanging  like  ripe  fruit  on  the  tree  of 
my  life,  and  I  am  unwilling  that  any  hand,  friendly  or  un- 
friendly, should  shake  them  to  the  ground.  Poor  as  they 
are,  they  are  yet  so  near  maturity  that  I  feel  it  to  be  a  sacred 
duty  to  do  my  utmost  for  their  preservation.  The  hour  has 
not  yet  sounded  when,  satisfied  as  to  their  fate,  I  can  resign 
myself  to  repose.  In  the  meantime  this  other  hour  has 
sounded,  in  which,  full  of  grief  and  bitterness,  I  find  myself 
compelled  to  beg  that  the  soundness  of  my  conception  of 
elementary  education  be  once  more  examined  and  put  to  the 
proof.  This  once  done,  and  in  such  a  way  as  is  meet,  I  shall 
have  nothing  left  to  wish  for.  And  so  I  close  my  dying 
strain  with  the  words  with  which  I  began  it. 

"  Try  all  things,  hold  fast  to  that  which  is  good,  and  if  any- 
thing better  has  matured  in  you,  add  it  to  what,  in  love  and 
truth,  I  am  here  attempting  to  give  you.  In  any  case,  do  not 
reject  the  work  of  my  whole  life  as  a  thing  already  condemned 
and  unworthy  of  further  examination.  It  is  not  yet  con- 
demned, and  merits  most  serious  attention,  not  indeed  for  my 
sake,  but  for  its  own." 

My  Experiences  in  my  Educational  Establishments  of 
Burgdorf  and  Yverdun.    Leipzig,  1826.1 

In  writing  this  book,  Pestalozzi's  original  intention  was 
merely  to  give  the  reasons  of  his  many  misfortunes,  and 
explain  the  failure  of  the  various  establishments  he  had 
founded ;  but  his  desire  to  justify  Schmidt,  and  make  the 
public  share  his  own  admiration  for  the  man,  led  him  into 
making  a  personal  attack  that  was  most  unworthy  of  him, 
and  for  which  it  is  hard  not  to  hold  Schmidt  in  a  great 
measure  responsible,  seeing  that  he  was  the  person  chiefly 
interested,  and  that  he  exercised  such  a  great  influence  over 
the  old  man's  mind. 

The  attack,  which  is  most  unfair,  is  chiefly  directed  against 
the  Niederers,  their  faults  being  cruelly  exaggerated,  while 
Schmidt's  are  more  or  less  condoned.  But  even  this  unfair- 
ness was  far  frcm  justifying  Biber's  venomous  reply,  which, 
as  we  have  seen,  finally  hastened  Pestalozzi's  death. 

1  Not  in  Cotta's  edition,  but  in  the  fifteenth  volume  of  Seyffarth's. 


384         PESTALOZZI:    HIS  LIFE  AND    WORK. 

If  the  book  were  merely  polemical,  we  should  have  nothing 
more  to  say  about  it ;  but  happily  Pestalozzi  often  forgets  that 
he  is  pleading  for  Schmidt,  and  becomes  the  educational  en- 
thusiast again,  and  at  these  times  he  is  admirable. 

On  the  very  first  page  he  says  : 

"  At  Burgdorf  I  soon  had  a  very  great  number  of  pupils, 
and  unfortunately  a  hundred  times  as  many  belauders.  To- 
day all  this  praise  and  success  seems  to  have  been  the  work 
of  enchantment.  Intoxicated  with  pleasure,  joy,  honour,  and 
hope,  we  lived  in  a  sort  of  paradise,  with  little  fear  of  the 
serpent  that  in  every  earthly  paradise  lays  snares  for  the  ruin 
of  poor  humanity,  so  weak,  so  vain,  and  so  easily  misled." 

Pestalozzi  then  refers  to  his  proved  incapacity  to  direct  or 
manage  an  institution,  and  declares  that  his  own  weakness 
and  mistakes  have  been  the  cause  of  all  his  misfortunes. 
He  also  points  out  that  such  an  educational  establishment  as 
he  had  dreamed  of  was,  by  its  very  nature,  an  impossibility,1 
and  that  those  he  had  founded  were,  from  the  very  first, 
doomed  to  destruction.  This  being  so,  it  seems  strange  that 
he  should  ever  have  attributed  his  failure  to  the  opposition 
which,  almost  from  the  beginning,  had  manifested  itself  be- 
tween Niederer  and  Schmidt. 

But  however  this  may  be,  Pestalozzi  does  himself  an 
injustice  when  he  speaks  of  being  utterly  incapable.  Was 
he  not  pre-eminently  successful  every  time  that,  unchecked 
by  material  obstacles,  he  was  able  to  act  freely  ?  And  with 
regard  to  the  education  of  children,  were  not  his  efforts  at 
Neuhof  in  his  youth,  at  Stanz  and  Burgdorf  in  his  maturity, 
and  even  at  Clendy  in  his  old  age,  crowned  with  marvellous 
success  ? 

He  is  also  unfair  to  his  schools  when  he  says  that  they  did 
no  good.  From  the  point  of  view  of  the  elementary  method, 
they  brought  about  undeniable  and  important  impiovements 
in  most  branches  of  teaching,  improvements  which,  carried 
into  different  countries  by  his  pupils,  gave  the  first  impetus 
to  a  general  reform  of  the  old  mechanical  methods. 

When  Pestalozzi  comes  to  the  foundation  of  the  poor-school 

1  The  reasons  of  this  impossibility  have  been  pointed  out  in  chapter 
xiv. 


PESTALOZZl'S  LAST  WRITINGS.  385 

at  Clendy,  he  entirely  forgets  his  polemical  aim,  and  lovingly 
describes  this  last  undertaking,  the  beginnings  of  which  had 
so  fully  satisfied  his  longings.  Then,  after  giving  a  few 
admirable  precepts  for  the  early  education  of  the  poor,  and 
for  the  training  of  primary  schoolmasters,  he  deplores  the 
deviation  from  his  principles  to  which  he  was  obliged  to 
consent  at  Clendy,  and  which  finally  resulted  in  the  ruin 
of  the  establishment.  This  part  of  the  book  at  least  is  full 
of  Pestalozzi  himself,  and  is  not  likely  to  be  forgotten. 

At  the  end  of  the  book,  Pestalozzi  gives  the  letter  he  had 
written  to  the  Niederers  in  1823,  in  which  he  implored  them 
to  forget  the  past  and  be  reconciled  to  him,  that  he  might  die 
in  peace.  He  concludes  by  saying  that  though  the  letter 
has  had  no  effect,  he  is  still  of  the  same  mind. 

Before  leaving  the  Experiences,  we  must  quote  the  opinion 
of  the  book  expressed  by  Blochmann,  who  was  an  assistant  of 
Pestalozzi's  from  1810  to  1816,  and  to  whom,  in  a  great 
measure,  Saxony  owes  the  excellence  of  her  public  educational 
establishments.  The  passage  is  taken  from  a  memoir  of 
Pestalozzi.  We  translate  literally : 

"In  his  "Experiences  he  enunciates  many  great  and  striking 
truths.  Those  who  have  lived  with  him  and  watched  his 
career  will,  I  am  certain,  be  convinced  of  the  general  sound- 
ness of  his  views  and  judgments,  in  spite  of  the  two  great 
illusions  running  through  the  book  ;  on  the  one  hand,  that  is, 
his  injustice  to  himself  and  to  the  value  and  results  of  the 
Yverdun  institute ;  on  the  other,  the  blind  obstinacy  with 
which  he  persistently  over-estimates  the  value  of  Schmidt's 
work,  and  refuses  to  recognize  the  true  character  of  the  man 
behind  his  mask  of  fidelity  and  affection." 

Discourse  delivered  at  Lanfjenthal  on  the  26th  of  .April, 
1826.1 

The  Helvetian  Society  had  been  formed  with  the  threefold 
object  of  cementing  the  different  parts  of  the  Swiss  Con- 
federation, encouraging  those  virtues  upon  which  the  liberty 
and  happiness  of  nations  depend,  and  restoring  some  of  the 
simplicity  of  former  times. 

Pestalozzi's  work  had  long  kept  him  absent  from  the  meet- 

1  In  the  fifteenth  volume  of  both  Cotta's  and  Se\  ffarth's  editions. 


386         PESTALOZZI:    HIS  LIFE  AND    WORK. 

ings  of  the  Society,  but  he  still  entirely  sympathized  with  the 
spirit  of  its  aim  and  efforts.  He  was,  besides,  one  of  the  last 
survivors  of  that  knot  of  enlightened  and  devoted  patriots 
who,  long  before  the  French  Revolution,  might  have  carried 
out  useful  reforms  in  Zurich,  had  they  but  had  more  practical 
views  and  a  better  knowledge  of  human  nature. 

This  conformity  between  the  objects  of  the  Helvetian 
Society,  and  those  which  he  had  so  enthusiastically  worked 
for  in  his  youth,  was  the  source  of  Pestalozzi's  inspiration 
for  his  address  at  Langenthal,  which  is  written  with  extra- 
ordinary force  and  spirit  for  an  old  man  of  eighty,  suffering 
under  the  effects  of  a  heavy  and  recent  misfortune. 

The  author  begins  by  painting  the  happiness  Switzerland 
enjoyed  after  the  wars  that  gave  her  her  independence.  At 
that  time  she  was  tranquil  at  home  and  respected  abroad ; 
the  needs  of  her  inhabitants  were  proportionate  to  their 
resources;  religion,  love  of  country,  kindliness  and  modera- 
tion reigned  in  every  heart;  there  was  a  certain  practical 
equality  too  in  the  conditions,  manners,  and  habits  of  life  of 
her  people,  in  spite  of  the  inequality  of  rights  that  resulted 
from  the  feudal  system.  At  that  time,  also,  there  were  few 
very  rich  people  and  few  very  poor,  by  far  the  greater  number 
of  her  inhabitants  being  peasant-proprietors. 

Pestalozzi  then  shows  the  changes  that  this  state  of  things 
gradually  underwent  under  the  influence  of  closer  contact 
with  foreign  nations,  the  Reformation,  and  especially  the 
introduction  into  Switzerland  of  that  industrial  life  which 
draws  so  much  capital  into  a  country. 

Wherever  the  larger  industries  have  flourished,  there  has 
always  been  an  increase  of  wealth  and  of  general  comfort, 
accompanied  however  by  a  still  greater  increase  in  the  general 
needs,  and  an  enormous  inequality  in  the  distribution  of  the 
wealth. 

On  the  one  hand,  a  few  colossal  fortunes  have  been  rapidly 
amassed,  and  have  given  us  an  example  of  the  luxurious  life 
of  great  cities ;  on  the  other  hand,  the  numbers  of  those  who 
have  but  their  hands,  and  are  so  often  wanting  in  wisdom, 
foresight,  and  economy  have  been  steadily  increasing.  As  to 
the  small  proprietors  that  were  formerly  so  numerous,  how 
many  of  them,  attracted  by  the  golden  bait  of  industry,  have 
forsaken  the  work  of  the  fields  and  no-  longer  possess  any- 
thing ? 


PESTALOZZPS  LAST  WRITINGS.  387 

After  showing  that  this  state  of  things  is  growing  worse 
from  day  to  day,  and  is  likely  soon  to  constitute  afi  imminent 
danger  to  social  order  and  civilization,  the  author,  as  the  only 
means  of  fighting  the  evil  and  slowly  curing  it,  urges  that 
elementary  education  shall  be  brought  within  the  reach  of 
all,  since  it  alone  can  give  a  natural  development  to  all  a 
child's  powers,  especially  his  moral  powers,  in  their  applica- 
tion to  the  practical  life  for  which  he  is  intended. 

Such,  in  substance,  is  the  last  work  we  have  of  Pestalozzi's 
We  know,  it  is  true,  that  on  the  21st  of  November  of  the 
same  year,  a  paper  of  his,  on  the  early  education  of  children 
in  the  home,  was  read  before  the  Society  of  Friends  of  Edu- 
cation at  Brugg,  but  this  paper  has  not  been  preserved. 


CHAPTER  XVIII. 

PERSONAL,  RECOLLECTIONS  OF  THE  AUTHOR. 

IN  relating  the  history  of  a  great  man  to  whom  we  are  in- 
debted for  so  many  useful  ideas,  I  have  felt  until  now  a  very 
natural  repugnance  to  speak  of  niy  own  impressions,  formed 
during  the  nine  years  that  I  was  his  pupil.  Not  only  was  I 
afraid  of  interrupting  my  narrative  or  of  unduly  prolonging 
it,  but  I  wished  first  of  all  to  place  before  my  readers 
authentic  documents,  my  master's  own  words,  and  the 
opinions  of  distinguished  men  far  better  qualified  to  judge 
of  him  than  myself. 

At  the  same  time,  the  numerous  publications  I  have  had 
to  consult  would  not  always  have  enabled  me  to  arrive  at 
the  truth,  if  my  own  personal  recollections  had  not  helped 
me  to  estimate  the  relative  value  of  all  these  documents,  at 
times  so  contradictory.  Especially  in  writing  the  sad  story 
of  the  decline  and  fall  of  the  Yverdun  institute  was  it  im- 
portant to  have  had  a  near  view  of  men  and  things,  so  as  to 
be  able  to  pass  over  the  many  slanderous  imputations  into 
which  passion  dragged  the  men  who  were  quarrelling  round 
Pestalozzi,  to  the  misfortune1  of  the  honourable  old  man. 

Moreover,  as  I  have  to  sum  up  the  views,  teaching,  and 
lasting  work  of  this  extraordinary  man,  and  as  what  I  shall 
have  to  say  will  not  always  conform  to  the  generally  re- 
ceived ideas  on  the  subject,  I  feel  very  strongly  that  my 
readers  have  a  right  to  ki  O',v  something  of  the  personal 
experience  which  entitles  ire  as  it  were  to  their  confidence. 
I  not  only  happened  to  be  in  an  exceptionally  favourable 
position  for  becoming  acquainted  with  the  master's  ideas 
and  those  of  his  principal  coadjutors,  but  I  am  to-day,  prob- 
ably, the  last  survivor  of  those  who  enjoyed  the  like  privi- 
lege ;  and  feeling  that  I  have  in  my  possession  a  most  sacred 
trust,  I  hold  it  to  be  my  duty  not  to  let  it  perish  with  me. 

Born  in  1802,  at  Yverdun,  where  my  father,  a   French 


PERSONAL  RECOLLECTIONS.  389 

refugee,  had  married  and  settled,  I  entered  Pestalozzi's 
school  in  1808,  after  having  been  prepared  by  one  of  the 
under-masters  for  the  elementary  class,  by  some  preliminary 
sense-impressing  exercises  in  nthnber  and  form.  I  was  only 
a  day  scholar  at  the  institute  ;  but  as  I  stayed  for  lunch, 
and  often  slept  there,  I  was  well  acquainted  with  the  work- 
ing of  the  interior. 

My  first  impression  as  I  went  into  my  class-room  was  a 
disagreeable  one.  The  room  was  very  untidy,  and  the 
furniture  and  other  things  of  such  a  primitive  kind  as  to- 
day can  hardly  be  imagined.  'There  were  tallow  candles, 
for  instance,  without  candlesticks  or  snuffers,  and  just  held 
by  a  twisted  wire  stuck  into  a  piece  of  wood.  The  language 
and  cries,  too,  of  all  these  Germans  grated  on  my  ear,  and 
their  manners  seemed  so  strange  that  I  felt  as  if  I  had  sud- 
denly been  plunged  into  an  atmosphere  of  gross  vulgarity. 

But  this  impression  was  of  short  duration.  I  was  very 
soon  won  over  by  Pestalozzi's  gentle  kindness,  by  his  keen 
yet  tender  look,  and  by  the  cordiality  which  seemed  to  per- 
vade the  house.  I  was  soon  caught,  too,  by  the  infectious 
good  humour  of  my  companions,  and  the  almost  passionate 
eagerness  with  which  they  did  most  of  their  work.  The 
following  fact,  which  to-day  I  can  hardly  understand,  proves 
that  I  was  very  quickly  captivated  by  the  charms  of  Pesta- 
lozzi's elementary  education.  I  was  not  quite  seven  years 
old,  and  yet  when  the  winter  came  on,  and  I  was  obliged  to 
get  up  very  early  and  set  off  before  it  was  light  to  the  other 
end  of  the  town  in  order  to  be  present  at  the  first  lesson  at 
six  o'clock,  I  never  dreamed  of  complaining. 

When  Pestalozzi  met  one  of  his  young  pupils  in  the 
corridors,  he  would  lay  his  hand  caressingly  on  his  hair, 
saying :  "  You,  too,  mean  to  be  wise  and  good,  don't  you  ?  " 
Then  he  would  talk  to  him  of  his  parents  and  God,  often 
ending  with  a  few  words  about  the  necessity  of  putting  our- 
selves into  harmony  with  Nature,  always  good  and  beautiful, 
like  its  Maker.  I  did  not  always  quite  understand  these 
little  talks,  but  the  impression  that  remained  was  a  good 
one.  In  the  junior  class  in  which  I  was  placed,  the  teaching 
was  given  in  French,  although  during  my  first  years  at  the 
institute  the  mother-tongue  of  most  of  the  pupils,  masters, 
and  servants  was  German.  Their  language,  tastes,  and 
habits  regulated  the  whole  of  the  internal  life  at  the  Castle ; 


390         PESTALOZZ1:    HIS  LIFE  AND    WORK. 

it  was,  in  short,  a  German-Swiss  household  transplanted 
into  French  Switzerland.  Every  one  was  obliged  to  speak 
French  at  certain  hours  of  the  day,  at  other  times  all  had  to 
speak  German.  In  this  way  every  pupil  became  more  or 
less  quickly  accustomed  to  the  use  of  a  foreign  tongue  ;  but, 
on  the  other  hand,  there  resulted  a  sort  of  mixture  of  the 
two  languages  which  was  not  very  good  for  either  of  them. 

During  my  first  four  or  five  years  at  the  institute,  I  was 
too  young  to  observe  anything  of  Festal ozzi's  doctrine  ;  my 
childish  impressions,  which  were  very  favourable,  alone 
remain.  I  took  pleasure  in  nearly  all  my  lessons,  especially 
in  natural  history,  geography,  mental  arithmetic,  elementary 
geometry,  singing,  and  drawing.  I  have,  moreover,  pre- 
served an  affectionate  and  grateful  remembrance  not  only  of 
Festalozzi,  but  of  most  of  the  other  masters,  who  looked  after 
us  with  so  much  kindness  in  our  lessons,  games,  and  walks, 
and  especially  in  our  mountain  excursions. 

These  excursions  in  the  Jura  were  a  source  of  great 
delight  to  us.  They  were  arranged  to  suit  the  ages  of  the 
.  different  classes,  and  as  soon  as  I  was  seven  I  began  to  take 
'part  in  them.  Our  masters,  of  whom  my  favourites  were 
Krusi  and  de  Muralt,  looked  after  us  with  almost  motherly 
solicitude,  making  frequent  halts  to  rest  our  little  legs,  re- 
freshing us,  when  we  were  tired,  with  a  few  drops  of  spirit 
on  a  piece  of  sugar,  and  now  and  then,  when  the  distance 
was  too  great,  procuring  some  rustic  conveyance  for  us,  in 
which  we  would  sing  gaily  as  we  passed  through  the  villages, 
where  the  peasants  often  gave  us  fruit. 

As  soon  as  we  got  to  the  high  mountain  pastures  under 
the  pines,  we  lost  our  feeling  of  fatigue,  and  fell  to  playing 
games  or  collecting  herbs  and  minerals.  We  often  gathered 
at  some  good  point  of  view  to  sing  the  wild,  simple,  Alpine 
melodies  our  masters  loved  to  teach  us.  To-day,  after  more 
than  sixty  years,  I  can  recall  these  songs  as  clearly  as  in 
those  early  days  when  I  first  sang  them,  and  they  still  seem 
very  beautiful  to  me. 

On  returning  from  these  excursions,  the  pupils  had  to 
describe  them,  either  orally  or  in  writing,  according  to  their 
ages.  There  was  generally  a  great  deal  to  say,  as  our  atten- 
tion was  always  carefully  drawn  to  everything  likely  to 
prove  instructive.  These  excursions  were,  in  fact,  practical 
lessons  in  natural  history  and  geography. 


PERSONAL  RECOLLECTIONS.  391 

Pestalozzi  took  a  singular  pleasure  in  watching  the  games 
ot'  his  pupils,  which  he  considered  of  very  great  importance, 
his  idea  being  that  children  when  not  at  work  ought  to  enjoy 
themselves,  and  that  a  state  of  total  inactivity  is  bad,  both 
physically  and  morally.  If  he  noticed  a  child  taking  no  part 
in  the  games  during  play-time,  he  could  seldom  rest  till  he 
had  tried  to  find  him  some  other  amusement. 

In  this  connection  an  incident  comes  back  to  my  memoiy 
which  did  not  strike  me  particularly  at  the  time,  but  which  I 
now  feel  to  have  been  exceedingly  characteristic.  One  day, 
when  a  fire  of  sticks  had  been  lighted  in  the  garden,  the  elder 
pupils  amused  themselves  by  leaping  over  the  flames  through 
the  smoke,  Pestalozzi  eagerly  encouraging  them.  When  the 
flames  had  died  down,  and  little  but  hot  embers  and  smoke 
remained,  the  little  ones  leaped  in  their  turn.  But  the  scene 
had  other  witnesses,  for  the  little  girls  of  the  Niederer  in- 
stitute, the  garden  of  which  joined  that  of  the  Castle,  were 
looking  through  the  palings  at  the  beautiful  flames  and  happy 
leapers.  No  sooner  did  Pestalozzi  see  them  than  he  went 
and  fetched  them,  and  they  too  were  soon  jumping  over  the 
remains  of  the  fire.  Never  was  delight  so  cheaply  pur- 
chased ! 

As  soon  as  I  was  twelve  years  old  I  began,  thankg  to  a 
special  combination  of  circumstances,  to  fix  my  attention  on 
what  was  called  "  the  method,"  in  which  I  betrayed  an  in- 
terest that  was  far  beyond  my  years. 

My  parents,  who  were  themselves  admirers  of  Pestalozzi, 
kept  up  friendly  relations  not  only  with  him  and  his  wife, 
but  with  his  principal  assistants.  My  mother,  who  in  her 
anxiety  for  my  progress  was  anxious  to  be  able  to  follow  my 
lessons,  set  to  work  to  learn  German,  and  with  such  great 
zeal  that  she  soon  mastered  its  difficulties.  She  even  pub- 
lished translations  of  several  German  works,  partly  to  add 
something  to  our  modest  resources,  and  partly  to  have  more 
to  spend  on  my  education.  It  was  in  this  way  that  she  carae 
to  translate  Leonard  and  Gertrude. 

Pestalozzi  himself  took  great  interest  in  her  work,  and  used 
to  come  to  our  house  nearly  every  day  to  examine  it ;  for  my 
mother  never  fair-copied  anything  without  first  consulting 
him.  As  she  thoroughly  understood  the  old  man's  Zurich 
dialect,  she  was  able  to  act  as  interpreter  for  the  many 
French  visitors  who  wanted  to  discuss  his  views,  and  so  he 


392         PESTALOZZI;    HIS  LIFE  AND    WORK. 

was  in  the  habit  of  bringing  anybody  with  him  to  whom 
he  particularly  wished  to  explain  them.  I  remember,  among 
others,  Jullien  of  Paris,  the  author  of  two  large  volumes  on 
Pestalozzi's  Mind  and  Method. 

About  the  same  time  Miss  Rath,  the  distinguished  painter 
to  whom  Geneva  owes  the  museum  which  bears  her  name, 
came  to  Yverdun  to  paint  Pestalozzi's  portrait.  As  she  was 
intimate  with  my  mother's  sister,  she  stayed  with  us,  and  it 
was  in  our  house  that  Pestalozzi  sat  to  her. 

Also  when  Mr.  Delbruck,  the  private  tutor  of  the  Prussian 
princes,  came  to  stay  at  Yverdun,  for  the  purpose  of  studying 
the  method,  my  parents  willingly  consented  to  receive  him 
into  their  house. 

The  result  of  all  this  was  that  for  several  years  our 
drawing-room  was  one  of  the  places  where  the  Pestalozzian 
doctrine  was  most  eagerly  expounded  and  discussed,  either 
by  the  master  himself  and  his  disciples,  or  by  strangers  who 
were  generally  well  qualified  to  form  an  opinion. 

I  eagerly  listened  to  these  conversations  and,  although  I 
did  not  of  course  understand  all  I  heard,  I  can  still  recall  a 
great  deal. 

A  hundred  times  have  I  heard  the  master  himself  explain 
his  doctrine,  and  each  time  with  a  different  illustration. 
This  profound  philosopher  had  no  love  for  philosophical 
language,  with  which  he  had  never  been  familiar.  Nor 
would  he  trust  himself  to  use  formulas,  of  which  indeed  he 
had  almost  a  dread.  His  thought,  which  had  been  shaped  in 
solitude  and  with  no  help  from  books,  was  simply  the  out- 
come of  observation  and  reflection,  and  so  he  preferred  to 
explain  his  views  as  he  had  formed  them,  and  attached  much 
more  weight  to  concrete  facts,  particular  examples,  and  com- 
parisons, than  to  abstractions  and  general  ideas. 

On  Pestalozzi's  return  from  Basle,  where  he  had  been 
honoured  with  the  gifts  of  princes,  he  at  first  took  a  child's 
pleasure  in  showing  these  gifts,  not  indeed  from  any  feeling 
of  personal  vanity,  but  because  they  seemed  to  promise 
support  to  his  doctrine  and  the  plans  by  which  he  hoped  to 
raise  the  condition  of  the  people.  About  that  time  I  was 
invited  to  accompany  my  parents  to  an  evening  gathering  at 
his  house.  On  that  occasion,  I  remember,  the  old  man  wore 
the  cross  of  Saint  Vladimir,  and  we  all  had  to  taste  the 
Austrian  Emperor's  Tokay ;  but  a  few  days  afterwards  he 


PERSONAL  RECOLLECTIONS.  393 

had  ceased  to  think  about  it,  and  the  cross  lay  forgotten  in 
his  cupboard.  Sometimes,  however,  when  visitors  of  dis- 
tinction arrived,  he  allowed  himself  to  be  persuaded  to  take 
a  little  extra  care  with  his  toilette,  and  then  some  one  would 
hastily  dress  him,  and  make  him  as  presentable  as  possible. 
We  children  derived  not  a  little  enjoyment  from  seeing  him 
enter  the  class-room  in  his  black  coat  and  white  cravat,  with 
the  famous  decoration  at  his  button-hole. 

Mrs.  Pestalozzi's  death  in  1815  has  left  a  sad  impression 
on  me.  Young  as  I  was  at  the  time,  I  was  struck  by  the 
marked  change  it  caiised  in  the  internal  life  of  the  institute. 
Neither  the  high  intellectual  and  moral  worth  of  this  re- 
markable woman,  nor  the  value  to  her  husband's  work  of 
her  tact,  advice,  and  devotion  have  been  sufficiently  appre- 
ciated. Although  an  invalid  and  confined  to  her  room,  she 
continued  to  be  a  centre  of  attraction,  and  every  one  was 
fond  of  coming  to  her,  if  only  for  a  few  moments,  sure  at 
least  of  a  kind  word. 

Of  the  large  number  of  people  present  at  the  sad  and 
imposing  ceremony  of  her  funeral,  there  was  not  one  but 
felt  a  personal  regret ;  all  felt  instinctively,  too,  that  the 
unfortunate  old  man  had  now  lost  his  chief  support. 

When  the  fierce  hostility  broke  out  between  Schmidt 
and  his  old  colleagues,  my  parents  were  greatly  grieved. 
They  fully  appreciated  the  many  good  qualities  of  Niederer 
and  Krusi ;  but  having  no  personal  interest  in  the  quarrel, 
they  determined  to  remain  true  to  Pestalozzi,  whatever 
happened.  One  day  Pestalozzi  brought  Schmidt  to  our 
house,  saying  that  his  friend  had  something  to  read  to  us. 
I  rose  to  go,  but  Schmidt  insisted  on  my  staying  "  because 
it  was  good  for  me  to  hear  it."  He  then  read  us  a  fable,  in 
which  he  compared  Pestalozzi  to  a  man  whose  house  is  in 
ruins,  and  who  is  obliged  to  rebuild  it.  Several  of  his  elder 
sons  are  ready  to  help  him,  but  only  on  condition  that  the 
house  be  built  after  their  plans  and  made  to  suit  their  own 
convenience ;  one  only,  a  younger  son,  offers  to  carry  out 
his  father's  plans  and  implicitly  follow  his  directions,  in- 
curring in  consequence  his  brothers'  hate.  This,  then,  was 
Schmidt's  view  of  the  deplorable  struggle  which  finally 
ruined  Pestalozzi  and  his  establishment. 

I  did  not  leave  the  institute  till  September,  1817,  when 
E  went,  with  my  parents  to  live  at  Versailles.  My  father's 
27 


394         PESTALOZZI:    HIS  LIFE  AND    WORK. 

intention  had  been  to  send  me  to  the  Polytechnic  School ; 
but  I  had  the  misfortune  to  lose  him  in  1819,  and  my  mother 
a  few  months  afterwards.  I  stayed  on  at  Versailles  as  a 
boarder  in  the  house  of  one  of  the  masters  at  Saint-Cyr  ; 
and,  thanks  to  the  training  I  had  received  at  Pestalozzi 's, 
made  rapid  progress  in  mathematics.  I  was,  however,  very 
much  behind  in  Latin,  and  could  only  be  placed  in  the  fifth 
class  at  school ;  but,  by  the  help  of  some  private  lessons,  I 
managed  in  two  years  to  work  my  way  into  the  first  class, 
where  I  afterwards  did  fairly  well. 

After  this  I  left  Versailles  for  Paris,  and  till  1822 
attended,  as  a  day- scholar,  the  special  mathematical  classes 
at  the  school  of  Louis-le-Grand.  I  then  entered  the  Poly- 
technic School,  where  I  found  several  of  my  old  Yverdun 
comrades,  amongst  whom  were  Beauchatton,  Jullien,  and 
Perdonnet,  all  distinguished  by  their  aptitude  for  mathe- 
matics. 

Once,  during  my  holidays,  T  went  back  to  Yverdun,  where 
I  found  the  institute  still  existing,  it  is  true,  but  only  the 
shadow  of  its  former  self.  I  was  only  able  to  see  Pesta- 
lozzi  in  the  presence  of  Schmidt,  who  never  quitted  him, 
and  who  was  the  only  one  of  my  old  masters  left.  I  was 
taken  into  the  room  formerly  occupied  by  Mrs.  Pestalozzi, 
and  found  some  young  girls,  under  the  direction  of  one  of 
Schmidt's  sisters,  speaking  English  and  playing  the  piano  ; 
but  whether  this  was  the  remnant  of  the  poor-school  of 
Clendy,  or  the  beginning  of  a  training-school  for  school- 
mistresses, I  do  not  know.  It  was  profoundly  sad  to  see 
those  about  Pestalozzi  still  encouraging  the  unhappy  old 
man  in  his  illusions. 

At  this  time,  and  at  Yverdun  especially,  the  decline  of 
the  institute  had  very  much  shaken  people's  faith  in  the 
views  of  its  founder.  They  still  had  respect  for  his  devo- 
tion, his  good  intentions,  and  his  misfortunes :  but  it  waa 
generally  believed  that  his  reason  was  entirely  gone,  a  grave 
error  in  which  I  myself,  led  away  by  appearances  and  the 
current  of  public  opinion,  was  very  nearly  sharing. 

In  1824,  owing  to  ill-health,  I  left  the  Polytechnic,  and 
went  to  stay  with  my  mother's  family.  Shortly  afterwards 
I  accompanied  Biot  on  his  scientific  mission  to  Italy,  and 
then  returned  to  Yverdun,  where  I  married  and  settled  in 
1826. 


PERSONAL  RECOLLECTIONS.  395 

I  was  almost  at  once  made  a  member  of  the  Commission 
charged  with  the  direction  of  the  public  schools  of  the 
Commune.  These  schools  were  not  yet  influenced  by  Pesta- 
lozzian  ideas,  and  still  followed  the  old  system  of  routine. 
There  was  one  large  elementary  class,  however,  conducted 
on  the  Lancastrian  method,  the  master  who  directed  it 
having  served  his  apprenticeship  at  Freiburg  under  Father 
Grirard.  I  could  not  help  comparing  what  I  then  saw  with 
what  I  had  seen  in  the  French  schools,  and,  before  that, 
at  the  Yverdun  institute.  Thus  the  question  of  method 
was  always  in  my  mind,  and  soon  became  my  favourite 
study. 

Pestalozzi's  method  seemed  to  me  to  be  undoubtedly  the 
best  and  most  natural,  though  I  never  got  so  far  as  to 
formulate  it  satisfactorily.  The  twelve  fundamental  prin- 
ciples discovered  by  Jullien  did  not  satisfy  me  at  all ;  I 
felt  very  strongly  that  the  method  was  an  organic  whole, 
and  that  there  must  be  some  single  central  principle 
running  through  its  various  applications. 

I  therefore  set  to  work  to  make  a  thorough  study  of 
Pestalozzi's  views,  supplementing  my  personal  recollections 
from  the"  master's  own  writings  and  the  statements  of  those 
of  his  old  assistants  who  had  survived  him. 

In  Yverdun  itself  there  were  still  three  establishments 
that  had  been  founded  by  followers  of  Pestalozzi,  in  each  of 
which  an  attempt  was  made  to  put  his  method  into  practice. 
These  three  establishments  were  the  boys'  school  in  the 
Castle,  directed  by  Rank  and  Kreis;  Naef's  institute  for 
deaf  mutes  ;  and  the  Niederers'  school  for  girls,  which  at 
that  time  was  in  a  highly  flourishing  condition  and  enjoyed 
a  great  reputation.  In  each  of  these  schools  I  found  the 
exercises  of  my  childhood  still  in  use,  and  followed  by 
about  the  same  amount  of  success. 

Bat  it  was  chiefly  to  Niederer  that  I  looked  for  help  in 
my  researches,  since  it  was  he  who  had  made  the  pro- 
foundest  study  of  Pestalozzi's  doctrine.  I  was  well  aware 
that  the  master  had  never  entirely  accepted  his  philo- 
sophical explanation,  and  this  caused  me  to  approach  him 
with  a  certain  mistrust ;  but  I  never  grew  tired  of  listening 
to  him  and  making  him  repeat  his  explanations,  which  I 
found  of  the  greatest  service.  Niederer  spoke  French  with 
a  strong  German  accent,  and  in  ordinary  conversation  not 


396         PESTALOZZI:    HIS  LIFE  AND    WORK. 

very  fluently;  but  he  knew  the  scientific  language  thoroughly, 
and  on  any  subject  connected  with  his  philosophical  studies 
expressed  himself  with  perfect  ease  and  clearness,  finding 
the  right  word  as  unerringly  as  if  he  had  been  a  French- 
man. 

His  exposition  of  Pestalozzi's  method  generally  rediiced 
itself  to  three  points :  aim,  starting-point,  and  connection. 
The  aim  is  the  development  of  man  as  a  whole,  with  all  his 
moral,  physical,  and  intellectual  powers,  the  particular  lines 
of  the  development  depending  upon  his  position  in  the  world 
— in  other  words,  upon  the  actual  life  that  awaits  him. 
The  starting-point  of  the  exercises  is  to  be  found  in  the 
notions  the  child  has  already  acquired,  in  his  present  tastes, 
needs,  and  powers.  The  connection  of  the  exercises  is  the 
order  in  which  they  follow  each  other,  which  order  must  be 
so  carefully  graduated  that  each  exercise  shall  give  the 
child  the  desire  and  the  power  to  do  the  next. 

But  as  I  was  also  anxious  for  information  from  the  other 
collaborators  of  my  venerated  master,  I  decided  to  visit  the 
training-schools,  orphanages,  and  other  institutions  directed 
by  followers  of  his,  and  make  inquiries  of  all  who  were 
known  to  have  been  specially  connected  with  him  and  to 
have  witnessed  his  earliest  efforts.  In  the  years  1837  and 
1838,  therefore,  I  travelled  about  Switzerland  for  this  pur- 
pose. 

It  would  take  too  long  to  give  the  names  of  all  those  who 
received  me  with  kindness  and  furnished  me  with  valuable 
information.  Of  the  men  who  had  actually  worked  with 
Pestalozzi  I  will  only  mention  Buss,  Krusi,  Lehmann,  Senn, 
Hagnauer  and  Grosldi;  and  of  the  distinguished  men  who 
had  been  intimately  acquainted  with  him,  Fellenberg, 
Zschokke,  Zellweger,  Father  Grirard  and  Doctor  Lippo. 

In  the  course  of  my  investigations  I  visited  most  of  the 
training-schools,  and  especially  those  of  cantons  Appenzell 
and  Thurgau. 

The  former,  which  was  situated  at  Gais  and  directed  by 
Krusi,  with  whom  I  spent  a  week,  interested  me  exceed- 
ingly, presenting  as  it  did  a  perfect  example  of  a  Pesta- 
lozzian  school.  It  was  while  listening  to  Krusi's  explanations 
that  I  began  to  see  for  the  first  time  that  the  fundamental 
principle  of  Pestalozzi's  doctrine  was  the  law  of  organism. 

The  training-school  of  canton  Thurgau  was  situated  at 


PERSONAL  RECOLLECTIONS.  397 

Kreuzlingen,  on  the  borders  of  the  Lake  of  Constance,  and 
was  under  the  direction  of  Wehr]i,  the  former  director  of 
the  poor-school  founded  by  Fellenberg  at  Hofwyl.  He  was 
an  intelligent,  warm-hearted  man,  and  kept  those  about  him 
in  a  state  of  constant  and  healthy  activity.  But  his  task 
was  not  an  easy  one,  for  the  director's  duty  was  not  only  to 
see  to  the  general  instruction  of  the  students,  both  Catholic 
and  Protestant,  but  to  give  them  some  acquaintance  with 
practical  agriculture. 

I  also  found  another  interesting  though  less  faithful 
application  of  Pestalozzi's  principles  in  the  training-school 
directed  by  Scherr  at  Kusnacht,  and  in  that  directed  by 
Keller  at  Lenzburg. 

At  that  time  there  were  already  several  establishments  in 
Switzerland  in  which  efforts  were  being  made  to  carry  out 
Pestalozzi's  ideas  for  the  education  of  neglected  or  orphan 
children.  I  visited  a  great  many  of  these,  particularly 
noticing  the  Schurtanne  Asylum  near  Trogen,  founded  by 
Zellweger,  and  Zeller's  institution  at  Beuggen  near  Rhein- 
felden, 

At  different  times  afterwards  I  also  visited  the  various 
scenes  of  Pestalozzi's  noble  and  indefatigable  exertions.  But 
by  that  time  his  fellow-workers  and  contemporaries  had  all 
passed  away,  and  the  only  people  I  could  question  were  old 
men,  who  at  the  time  of  Pestalozzi's  first  experiments  had 
been  little  more  than  children. 

At  Yverdun  itself  I  often  had  the  pleasure  of  meeting 
some  of  my  old  masters  and  comrades.  All  those  who  had 
lived  there  before  1817,  had  retained  such  pleasant  memories 
of  the  place  that  they  seldom  lost  an  opportunity  of  revisit- 
ing the  spot  where  they  had  passed  so  many  happy  hours  in 
their  childhood,  "  their  dear  Yverdun,"  as  they  used  to  call 
it,  and  so  I  had  many  chances  of  reviving  my  old  memories 
and  gathering  fresh  information. 

It  was  in  this  way  that  I  had  the  pleasure  of  receiving,  in 
my  own  house,  my  dear  old  French  master,  Alexander 
Boniface.  On  leaving  Yverdun  he  had  established  a  Pesta- 
lozzian  school  in  Paris,  which  at  first  had  met  with  consider- 
able success ;  but  as  the  plan  of  studies  was  in  opposition  to 
that  of  the  University,  the  success  was  necessarily  short- 
lived. I  also  twice  received  Mr.  Blochmann  of  Dresden,  who 
had  taught  me  music  and  geography  in  the  institute,  and 


398          PESTALOZZI:   HIS  LIFE  AND    WORK. 

had  afterwards  become  the  King  of  Saxony's  chief  educa- 
tional councillor. 

Since  then  many  years  have  passed  ;  none  of  my  old  masters 
are  left;  the  very  pupils  of  the  institute,  if  still  alive,  are 
old  men,  and  their  loving  visits  to  Yverdun  have  entirely 
ceased.  And  so,  left  almost  alone,  I  have  gathered  together 
these  memories,  feeling  that  I  had  not  a  day  to  lose. 


CHAPTER  XIX. 

PESTALOZZl's   RELIGION. 

AT  first  sight,  Pestalozzi's  religion  does  not  strike  us  very 
favourably ;  it  was  neither  the  mainspring  of  his  life,  nor 
even  the  motive  that  induced  him  to  embark  on  the  enter- 
prises of  his  early  years.  Even  as  a  child,  he  admired  the 
activity  of  his  grandfather,  the  pastor,  rather  from  a  temporal 
than  from  a  spiritual  point  of  view,  and  his  subsequent  study 
of  theology  did  but  serve  to  disgust  him  with  a  formal  and 
dead  orthodoxy.  His  faith,  too,  was  severely  shaken  by  his 
study  of  Rousseau ;  and  in  the  various  philanthropic  plans 
he  formed  at  the  time  of  his  marriage,  he  cared  less  for 
heaven  than  for  earth. 

At  his  son's  birth,  however,  his  religious  sentiment  revived, 
and,  as  we  see  from  certain  fervent  passages  in  his  diary, 
exercised  no  small  influence  over  him,  though  even  now  his 
faith  was  not  in  Jesus  the  Saviour  of  men,  the  need  of  whom 
he  did  not  feel  till  somewhat  later,  when  working  at  the  edu- 
cation of  his  son,  and  of  the  poor  children  he  had  taken  into 
his  home.  When  his  first  charitable  effort  had  brought  him 
to  the  verge  of  ruin,  he  wrote  as  follows : 

"  Christ,  by  His  example  and  doctrine,  teaches  us  to 
sacrifice  ourselves  and  all  we  possess  for  our  brother's  good  ; 
He  shows  us  that  we  have  no  absolute  right  to  anything 
that  we  have  received,  but  that  it  is  merely  entrusted  to  us 
by  God  to  be  administered  in  the  service  of  charity." 

Pestalozzi  proved  himself  a  Christian  by  his  actions,  his 
whole  life,  his  ardent  and  universal  charity;  he  never 
attacked  any  of  the  Christian  dogmas,  but  neither  did  he 
ever  make  any  clear  and  formal  profession  of  them,  dreading 
the  influence  of  dogmatism  on  the  development  of  the  reli- 
gious sentiment.  Moreover,  though  a  Protestant  himself, 
he  was  anxious  to  have  his  work  accepted  by  Catholics,  and 


400         PESTALOZZ1 ' :    HIS  LIFE  AND    WORK. 

accordingly,  in  all  he  wrote  and  said,  he  carefully  avoided 
everything  that  was  likely  to  wound  any  man's  religious 
convictions. 

Pestalozzi  was  certainly  not  one  of  those  people  who  look 
upon  the  Bible  as  a  merely  human  book,  but  neither  was  lie 
one  of  those  who  consider  it  to  be  entirely  Divine.  The 
co-existence  of  the  Divine  and  human  elements  in  our  sacred 
books  is,  in  our  opinion,  beyond  dispute,  but  inasmuch  as  it 
is  a  question  that  gives  rise  to  such  an  infinite  variety  of 
opinions,  it  is  avoided  by  many,  not  from  indifference,  but 
from  a  desire  for  unity. 

Judging  from  Pestalozzi's  writings,  it  would  seem  that  he 
accepted  the  Divine  authority  for  everything  affecting  man's 
sanctification,  but  for  nothing  else.  His  distinction  between 
Divine  and  human  was  not  very  clear  or  precise,  however ; 
indeed,  his  statements  are  sometimes  so  contradictory,  that 
even  those  who  assert  that  he  was  a  rationalist  are  able  to 
point  to  passages  in  support  of  their  view. 

Furthermore,  Pestalozzi  must  have  scandalized  the  Chris- 
tians of  his  time  by  his  contempt  for  the  study  of  the 
catechism,  and  indeed  for  verbal  teaching  in  general  as  a 
means  for  developing  a  child's  religious  sentiment.  But  in 
this  respect  his  ideas  were  not  so  new  as  was  generally 
believed,  for  they  had  been  current  as  long  ago  as  the 
Reformation  ;  they  had,  however,  disappeared  before  the 
steadily  increasing  power  of  a  formalism  that  cared  for 
nothing  but  words. 

The  following  passage  occurs  in  (Ekolampad's  Antisyn- 
gramma,  published  in  1526  : 

"  The  outward  word  is  not  the  object  of  faith,  not  that 
which  brings  us  the  blood  of  Christ,  food,  and  clothing.  It 
is  given  to  us  merely  to  incite  us  to  find  things,  and  these 
we  must  look  for  in  ourselves.  Words  teach  us  nothing  but 
words.  If  we  do  not  first  -know  the  things  themselves,  how 
shall  we  know  what  words  are  fit  to  express  them  worthily  ? 
If  you  do  not  already  possess  a  certain  knowledge,  you  may 
listen  to  words  for  hours,  but  you  will  learn  nothing."  1 

The  ruin  of  the  Yverdun  institute   coincided   with   the 
1  See  the  Swiss  Christian  Review,  December,  1872,  p.  743. 


PESTALOZZPS  RELIGION.  401 

appearance  in  Switzerland  of  a  religious  revival  which,  but 
for  the  errors  with  which  it  was  accompanied,  would  have 
filled  Pestalozzi's  heart  with  joy.  At  first  the  old  man  saw 
little  else  in  the  movement  but  a  return  to  primitive  Christian 
simplicity,  and  welcomed  it  with  eager  gladness,  as  is  proved 
by  the  following  passage  of  his  discourse  for  the  12th  of 
January,  1818  : 

"  The  religious  spirit,  the  blessing  of  the  house,  still 
exists  among  us ;  but  it  is  without  inner  life,  and  is  reduced 
to  a  mere  reasoning  spirit  that  does  nothing  but  talk  of 
what  is  holy  and  Divine.  .  .  .  And  yet,  the  true  spirit 
of  Christ's  teaching  seems  to  be  striking  new  and  deep  roots 
amid  the  corruption  of  our  race,  and  to  be  nourishing  a  pure 
inner  life  in  thousands  of  souls.  Indeed  it  is  this  alone  that 
will  furnish  us  with  the  strength  and  principles  necessary 
for  fighting  against" the  ideas,  feelings,  desires  and  habits 
of  our  century,  which  are  undoubtedly  the  chief  causes  of 
the  degradation  of  the  people." 

Before  long,  however,  Pestalozzi,  had  ceased  to  be  in  entire 
sympathy  with  the  revivalists  who,  while  preaching  a  truer 
and  more  living  Christianity  than  the  philosophers  of  the 
eighteenth  century  had  left  to  the  great  mass  of  Protestants, 
were  also  preaching  a  narrow,  repressive  theology,  that  left 
hardly  any  place  for  free  will,  deprived  man  of  the  power  of 
working  at  his  own  sanctification,  and  above  all  refused  to 
recognize  in  the  child  any  single  element  of  good.  It  is 
clear  that  such  a  theology  as  this  could  not  be  acceptable  to 
Pestalozzi,  and  so  it  came  to  pass  that  the  leaders  of  the 
movement  refused  to  look  upon  him  as  a  Christian. 

This  judgment  was  unfortunately  confirmed  by  the  testi- 
mony of  Ramsauer,  a  pupil  of  Pestalozzi,  and  one  of  his 
best  collaborators,  who  after  leaving  the  Yverdun  institute 
had  become  a  fervent  Pietist.  In  the  work  we  have  already 
quoted,  while  doing  full  justice  to  his  old  master,  for  whom 
ho  is  still  full  of  gratitude  and  affection,  he  complains  of 
uever  having  been  instructed  in  sound  Christian  doctrine, 
and  especially  in  the  doctrine  of  original  sin. 

And  yet  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  Pestalozzi  recognized 
the  existence  of  evil  in  the  human  soul,  for  it  is  the  obvious 
teaching  of  his  fable,  The  interior  of  the  hill,  already  quoted. 


402         PESTALOZZI:    HIS  LIFE  AND    WORK. 

A  similar  view  to  Ramsauer's  is  expressed  by  writers  who 
shared  his  religious  opinions,  such  as  Blochmann,  Chavannes 
and  Paroz,  all  enlightened  and  friendly  critics.  There  has 
even  been  published  a  German  pamphlet,  bearing  the  title, 
Was  Pestalozzi  a  Christian  ?  a  question  which  the  author 
answers  in  the  negative. 

On  the  other  side,  however,  we  are  glad  to  be  able  to 
cite  the  testimony  of  Jayet,1  an  eager  partisan  of  the  revival, 
and  a  man  eminently  qualified  to  form  a  correct  estimate  of 
Pestalozzi.  The  following  passage  is  taken  from  a  letter 
he  wrote  at  our  special  request : 

"  The  subject  of  your  letter  is  one  of  those  which  have 
the  greatest  claim  on  my  interest.  I  owe  much  to  Pestalozzi, 
who  was  almost  a  father  to  me.  But  an  answer  is  not  easy  ; 
indeed  I  should  need  rather  a  pamphlet  than  a  letter  for  my 
recollections.  This,  however,  is  not  what  you  ask  for,  nor 
could  I  find  time  for  it.  I  shall  just  jot  things  down  then 
as  I  remember  them,  beginning  with  the  religious  question 
upon  which  you  lay  particular  stress. 

"  There  was  certainly  no  lack  of  piety  in  Pestalozzi,  though 
certain  important  points  of  Christianity  were  not  clear  to 
him.  He  did  not  believe  in  man's  fall,  for  instance,  or  at 
any  rate  he  had  not  a  sufficiently  clear  conception  of  it. 
And  so,  as  a  natural  consequence,  he  ignored  the  fact  of 
expiation  and  redemption  by  Christ's  blood.  In  his  efforts 
to  raise  mankind  he  relied  exclusively  upon  his  method,  or 
rather  upon  a  perfected  method  of  education,  ignoring  all 
other  means,  the  great  and  chief  means. 

"  I  remember,  however,  that  Pestalozzi,  ignorant  as  he  was 
of  the  essence  of  the  Gospel,  had  thoroughly  caught  its 
spirit  in  his  manner  of  treating  us.  Faith  and  love  were 
•words  that  were  constantly  recurring  in  his  religious  dis- 
courses. He  seems  to  have  taken  as  his  model  God's  way 
of  turning  men's  hearts  to  Himself,  who  does  not  hold  the 
guilty  innocent,  and  yet  pardons  men  that  they  may  fear 
Him.  Though  Pestalozzi  was  not  particularly  strict,  he  had 
no  difficulty  in  controlling  us.  But  his  discipline  was  love. 


1  Mr.  Jayet  was  one  of  the  first  pupils  entered  at  the  Tverdnn  institute. 
He  afterwards  became  a  pastor,  and  was  one  of  the  most  ardent  apostles 
of  the  religious  revival. 


PESTALOZZPS  RELIGION.  403 

When  he  scolded  us,  it  was  with  his  arms  round  our  necks. 
He  reached  our  consciences  through  our  hearts.  And  thus, 
without  knowing  it,  he  prepared  many  a  soul  for  the  dis- 
cipline of  the  Gospel  and  God's  methods  of  salvation.  I  have 
often  been  struck  by  the  number  of  Pestalozzi's  old  pupils 
who  afterwards  embraced  the  faith,  for  which  they  almost 
seemed  to  have  been  prepared.  .  .  . 

"Pestalozzi  aimed  more  at  harmoniously  developing  the 
faculties  than  at  making  use  of  them  for  the  acquirement  of 
positive  knowledge ;  he  sought  to  prepare  the  vase  rather 
than  fill  it.  But  this  judicious  plan  not  infrequently  gave 
rise  to  misapprehension,  and  I  afterwards  heard  many 
parents  find  fault  with  Pestalozzi,  saying :  ( As  long  as  my 
son  was  with  Pestalozzi  he  learned  nothing,  but  as  soon  as  I 
put  him  somewhere  else  he  made  rapid  progress.'  And  I 
often  had  the  greatest  difficulty  to  make  these  people  under- 
stand that  this  very  progress  was  owing  to  the  judicious 
preparation  their  children  had  received  from  Pestalozzi." 

These  last  remarks  are  important,  and  throw  considerable 
light  on  the  many  contradictory  opinions  that  have  been 
expressed  about  Pestalozzi. 

May  we  believe  that  after  the  time  when  Mr.  Jayet  was 
a  pupil  in  the  institute,  Pestalozzi  accepted  the  truths  of  the 
Christian  dogma  in  a  more  complete  manner  ?  His  discourses 
seem  to  prove  that  he  did. 

Here  are  a  few  extracts  from  the  discourse  pronounced 
on  Christmas  Day,  1811,  which  is  printed  at  the  end  of  the 
sixteenth  volume  of  Seyffarth's  collection : 

"  My  children,  we  want  you  to  share  with  us  the  joy  of 
knowing  that  Jesus  Christ  our  Saviour  came  down  from 
heaven  and  became  man  among  us.  .  .  .  Listen  to  the 
words  of  the  angel:  'Behold  I  tell  you  tidings  of  great 
joy,  for  to-day  a  Saviour  is  born  to  you.'  Keep  these  words 
carefully  in  your  hearts.  .  .  . 

"  Ah,  if  I  could  make  this  day  a  holy  and  blessed  day  for 
you,  not  merely  a  day  of  joy,  but  a  day  of  salvation  and 
of  sanctification !  If  your  joy,  strengthening  your  faith  in 
Jesus  Christ,  could  raise  you  to  that  life  of  truth,  justice, 
faith,  and  love  which  is  in  the  spirit  of  Christ,  and  to  which 
Christ  calls  all  men !  .  .  . 


404         PESTALOZZl:    HIS  LIFE  AND    WORK. 

"  The  whole  Bible  is  nothing  but  a  collection  of  the  reve- 
lations of  Grod,  calling  men  to  rise  above  the  vain  service  of 
the  world  to  the  Divine  service  of  a  holy  faith  in  Him." 

And  again,  in  the  discourse  of  the  12th  of  January,  1818, 
the  following  passage  occurs  : 

"  Let  no  one  say  that  Jesus  did  not  love  the  wicked,  tho 
evildoers  !  He  loved  them  with  a  Divine  love,  He  died  for 
them.  It  was  not  the  just  but  sinners  that  He  called  to 
repentance.  He  did  not  find  the  sinner  a  believer,  but  made 
him  a  believer  by  His  own  faith ;  He  did  not  find  him 
humble,  but  made  him  humble  by  His  own  humility." 

Later  still,  when  the  establishment  at  Yverdun  was  on 
the  verge  of  dissolution,  Pestalozzi,  with  his  characteristic 
conscientiousness,  reproached  himself  for  not  having  given  a 
more  solid  religious  foundation  to  his  work.  It  was  then 
that  walking  one  day  in  the  garden  of  the  Castle  and  looking 
sadly  at  the  old  building,  he  said  to  his  companion  :  "  Ah, 
my  dear  friend,  I  did  not  establish  my  house  firmly  enough 
upon  the  true  foundation,  and  thus  it  is  threatened  with 
ruin." 

On  his  death-bed  Pestalozzi  cried  :  "  I  am  soon  going  to 
read  in  the  book  of  truth,"  knowing  full  well  that  man  is 
not  permitted  to  understand  everything  here  below.  He 
then  added  :  "  I  am  going  to  eternal  peace,"  and  died  with 
the  joy  and  faith  of  a  Christian. 

The  earth  has  now  covered  his  mortal  remains  for  sixty 
years,  and  during  that  time  men's  opinions  of  him  have 
been  considerably  modified.  His  work  is  being  slowly 
understood,  and  people  are  beginning  to  see  that  he  was 
misjudged,  only  because  he  was  ahead  of  his  time. 

During  the  last  thirty  years,  even  the  most  orthodox 
Protestants  have  repudiated  the  narrowness  of  view,  Puri- 
tanical harshness,  and  petty  intolerance  that  so  long  existed 
among  the  partisans  of  the  religious  revival,  and  it  is  now 
understood  that  there  are  different  ways  of  being  an  evan- 
gelical Christian.  And  so  in  recent  works  on  Pestalozzi, 
which  have  been  especially  numerous  in  Germany,  we  find 
no  trace  of  doubt  as  to  the  Christian  character  of  his  work. 

This  character,  as  we  have  seen,  was  evident  enough  in 


PESTALOZZrS  RELIGION.  405 

Pestalozzi's  treatment  of  the  children  he  sought  to  befriend, 
but  it  stands  out  most  clearly  when  we  compare  his  educa- 
tional doctrine  with  the  teaching  of  the  Gospel.  What 
Jesus  asks  for  is  an  inward  development  in  spirit  and  in 
truth,  something  which  conies  from  the  heart.  When  He 
seeks  to  make  us  one  with  Him,  it  is  that  we  may  be  nourished 
by  His  love,  His  faith,  and  His  humility,  as  the  branch  is 
nourished  by  the  sap  of  the  vine.  He  always  judges  of  an 
act  by  the  feeling  behind  it,  thus  making  the  hidden  motives 
of  the  human  soul  a  measure  of  the  real  value  of  its  external 
manifestations. 

And  if  we  look  at  the  comparisons  by  which  Jesus  teaches 
His  disciples,  we  shall  find  Him  constantly  taking  vegetable 
life  as  a  type  of  the  moral  and  religious  life.  The  kingdom 
of  heaven  is  like  a  tree  that  has  grown  from  a  small  seed. 
The  word  of  God  is  like  a  seed  that  falls  upon  good  ground ; 
it  takes  root  and  develops  in  a  well-prepared  heart.  God 
punishing  the  sinner  is  like  a  gardener  pruning  a  tree  that 
it  may  bring  forth  more  fruit.  Every  tree  is  known  by  its 
fruits;  men  do  not  gather  figs  of  thorns,  etc. 

Everywhere,  in  short,  He  explains  the  development  of  the 
human  heart  by  likening  it  to  the  organic  development  of 
the  plant.  We  might  indeed  call  this  the  philosophy  of  the 
Gospel ;  we  are  about  to  see  that  it  was  certainly  the 
philosophy  of  Pestalozzi. 


CHAPTER  XX. 

PESTALOZZI'S   PHILOSOPHY. 

PESTALOZZI  was,  before  everything  else,  a  man  of  feeling 
and  imagination ;  it  was  his  feelings  that  led  him  to  put 
himself  in  the  place  of  the  unfortunate,  it  was  by  his  power- 
ful imagination  that  he  so  identified  himself,  as  it  were, 
with  children  and  poor  people  as  to  discover  in  them  the 
truths  he  was  destined  to  reveal  to  the  world. 

He  was,  at  the  same  time,  a  man  of  action.  In  devoting 
himself  to  the  people,  it  was  by  deeds  and  practical  experi- 
ments that  he  sought  to  serve  them.  He  only  began  to 
write  when  he  could  no  longer  act,  and  afterwards  he  only 
wrote  for  the  sake  of  making  known  certain  views  which  he 
was  not  in  a  position  to  test  practically. 

He  would  never  admit  that  he  had  a  carefully  thought-out 
system,  his  intuitions  being  so  simple  and  so  clear  that  he 
thought  they  must  be  shared  by  everybody.  It  is  true  that 
he  was  unable  to  formulate  them  in  any  general  manner, 
because,  having  so  long  forsaken  books  and  the  society  of 
scholars,  he  had  no  power  of  philosophical  expression.  And 
yet  he  was  delighted  to  hear  from  Fichte  that  his  ideas 
were  in  harmony  with  the  philosophy  of  Kant. 

It  is  somewhat  difficult,  then,  to  think  of  Pestalozzi  as  a 
philosopher.  And  yet  when  we  see  his  whole  life  animated 
by  on,e  idea,  an  idea  which  enables  him  first  to  discover  the 
faults  of  the  schools  of  his  time,  and  the  dangers  to  civili- 
zation resulting  therefrom,  and  then  to  apply  remedies, 
many  of  which,  despite  his  awkwardness,  met  with  admir- 
able success,  we  can  no  longer  doubt  that  some  new  and 
fertile  philosophical  principle  had  been  revealed  to  his 
mind. 

As  a  matter  of  fact,  all  the  originality  of  his  genius  con- 
sists in  a  new  conceptipn  of  man  and  man's  nature,  of  his 
powers,  their  mode  of  action,  and  development.  This  is 


PESTALOZZrS  PHILOSOPHY.  407 

what  we  venture  to  call  Pestalozzi's  philosophy  ;  and  when 
it  is  once  understood,  his  whole  doctrine  is  seen  to  result 
naturally  from  it. 

In  Pestalozzi's  view,  man  is  created  by  God  and  comes 
into  the  world  possessing  in  germ  all  the  moral,  physical, 
and  intellectual  powers  which,  if  exercised  and  developed 
by  the  natural  means  the  world  offers  him,  will,  by  Divine 
grace,  enable  him  happily  to  accomplish  the  destiny  to  which 
he  is  called. 

In  many  of  his  writings,  Pestalozzi  formally  recognizes  the 
necessity  of  God's  grace,  but  he  knows,  too,  that  if  it  is 
man's  duty  to  ask  for  it  as  being  powerless  without  it,  he  must 
none  the  less  work  as  if  he  could  do  everything  for  himself, 
and  apply  his  whole  strength  in  the  sphere  of  activity  to 
which  God  has  called  him. 

The  only  means  that  the  educator  can  make  direct  and 
practical  use  of  are  those  offered  by  the  world  in  general 
and  the  child's  nature  in  particular ;  it  is  these  that  Pesta- 
lozzi studied  and  co-ordinated,  for  the  purpose  of  employing 
them  in  accordance  with  the  natural  law  of  the  child's 
development. 

This  law  is  the  essential  part  of  his  discovery ;  it  is  a 
consequence  of  his  philosophical  conception  of  human  nature  ; 
it  became  the  fundamental  principle  of  his  educational 
doctrine. 

It  appears  in  his  mind  as  an  intuition  of  his  early  youth. 
As  a  general  rule  he  does  not  so  much  state  the  law  as  take 
it  for  granted,  but  he  always  observes  it  and  acts  in  accord- 
ance with  it.  We  may  say,  indeed,  that  his  whole  life  bears 
its  stamp.  It  is  true  that  he  nowhere  formulates  it  as  a 
whole,  but  he  gives  its  principal  features  in  all  his  writings. 
Wo  find  it,  for  instance,  in  the  Evening  Hour,  his  first 
pedagogical  work,  and  again  in  the  Song  of  the  Swan,  the 
last  production  of  his  old  age. 

As  we  have  seen,  this  law  of  man's  development  is  an 
organic  law ;  that  is  to  say,  our  true  progress  cannot  result 
from  a  mere  combination  of  external  circumstances,  but  only 
from  the  work  that  goes  on  within  us.  In  the  physical  or- 
ganism the  organs  are  increased  and  strengthened  by  use  and 
exercise  only  ;  each  of  them  profits  chiefly  and  directly  from 
the  exercise  which  is  suited  to  it,  but  also  to  some  extent 
indirectly  from  the  exercise  of  certain  other  organs,  on 


408         PESTALOZZI:    HIS  LIFE  AND    WORK. 

account  of  the  harmony  and  solidarity  which  exist  between 
the  different  parts  of  the  same  organism.  Progress  follows 
progress  in  an  unbroken  sequence.  The  development,  in 
short,  at  whatever  point  it  may  be  supposed  to  stop,  always 
forms  a  whole  which  is  harmonious  and  complete. 

Such  are  the  essential  features  of  this  law,  discovered  by 
Pestalozzi,  and  applied  by  him  in  all  the  enterprises  of  his 
long  life,  so  long,  at  least,  as  circumstances  allowed  him  to 
freely  follow  his  own  impulses.1 

It  is  the  law  of  the  natural  development  of  man  ;  we  may 
therefore  expect  to  find  it  living  and  active  whenever  this 
development  has  not  been  interfered  with  by  the  prejudices 
or  passions  of  men  and  the  artificial  means  they  so  generally 
adopt.  Hence  Pestalozzi  sees  the  type  of  the  law  in  the 
action  of  a  good  mother  in  her  relations  with  her  infant 
child. 

He  wishes  the  mother  to  learn  to  continue  and  complete 
this  work  she  has  so  well  begun,  to  teach  always  in  the 
same  spirit  all  that  the  child  is  capable  of  learning,  and  to 
make  him  discover  for  himself  the  elements  of  the  knowledge 
that  he  will  afterwards  acquire  in  the  school.  The  work  of 
the  school,  in  fact,  is  to  be  but  the  continuation  of  the  work 
begun  by  the  mother.  This  work  embraces  moral  develop- 
ment, physical  development,  and  intellectual  development, 
all  of  which  were  included  by  Pestalozzi  in  what  he  called 
his  "  idea  of  elementary  education." 

In  moral  development  each  individual  faculty  of  the  heart 
must  be  set  in  action  and  exercised,  that  it  may  not  perish 
but  gain  strength  and  breadth  ;  thus,  all  faith  must  proceed 
from  a  first  act  of  faith,  all  love  from  a  first  prompting  of 
love,  all  justice  from  a  first  sentiment  of  justice,  and  it  is  in 
ordinary  life  and  especially  in  the  home  that  the  means  and 
opportunities  for  this  development  of  the  heart  are  to  be 
found ;  "  for,"  says  Pestalozzi,  "  it  is  life  that  educates." 
For  the  development  of  the  moral  nature  the  philosopher  of 
education  did  not  propose  any  special  and  definite  series  of 
exercises,  for  it  would  have  been  impossible  to  draw  one  up ; 

1  In  The  Philosophy  and  Practice  of  Education  we  have  shown  that 
this  law  results  strictly  from  the  observation  of  facts,  we  have  formulated 
it  in  its  entirety,  and  we  have  endeavoured  to  apply  it  to  all  branches  of 
education. 


PESTALOZZrS  PHILOSOPHY.  409 

but  he  organized  all  the  child's  activity  in  such  a  way  as  to 
give  him  no  other  motive  power  than  feelings  and  desires 
consistent  with  Christian  morality,  and  in  doing  that  he 
freed  the  education  of  the  heart  from  the  subversive  in- 
fluences of  the  school. 

In  physical  development  the  organic  law  had  naturally 
not  been  entirely  ignored,  but  public  education  took  little 
notice  of  it.  Pestalozzi  revived  gymnast.cs  at  a  time  when 
Europe  had  allowed  them  to  fall  into  complete  neglect.  Ill 
his  institutions  he  graduated  these  exercises  in  a  manner 
which  has  since  been  imitated  and  improved  upon. 

But  it  was  above  all  in  what  he  did  for  intellectual  develop- 
ment that  Pestalozzi  obtained  the  success  most  calculated  to 
strike  the  public,  a  success  which  amazed  his  visitors  and 
brought  general  attention  upon  his  undertakings.  He  sought 
out  the  simplest  elements  of  our  knowledge  in  the  form  in 
which  they  engage  the  attention  of  the  little  child  ;  he  made 
him  acquire  them  by  that  direct  and  personal  experience 
which  he  calls  sense-impression,  and  developed  them  by  a 
series  of  exercises  which  proceeded  by  almost  imperceptible 
degrees  in  one  unbroken  chain.  This  is  what  has  generally 
been  called  the  "Method  "  of  Pestalozzi.  But  however  far 
he  and  his  fellow-workers  may  have  carried  their  labours  in 
this  direction,  however  remarkable  their  success  may  have 
sometimes  been  in  mathematics,  drawing,  geography,  etc., 
Pestalozzi  was  not  satisfied.  He  used  to  say  that  that  was 
not  the  end  to  which  he  had  devoted  his  life,  but  simply 
one  of  the  special  means  by  which  he  hoped  to  reach  it,  and 
BO  he  worked  on  and  never  ceased  in  his  search. 

In  reality,  in  wishing  to  show  his  doctrine  in  the  light  of 
its  practical  results,  he  had  set  himself  a  task  for  which  a 
man'.s  whole  life  would  hardly  have  sufficed,  even  had  he 
possessed  all  the  strength  and  resources  that  Pestalozzi 
lacked.  Often  and  often  in  the  coarse  of  his  experiments 
he  had  recognized  their  defects  and  insufficiency,  he  had 
seen  that  they  were  not  giving  an  exact  and  complete  idea 
of  his  doctrine,  and  he  had  tried  to  make  up  for  this  by  his 
writings.  It  was  in  this  mind  and  with  this  intention  that 
he  published  most  of  his  books,  but  in  none  of  them  did  he 
concentrate  his  ideas  or  co-ordinate  his  principles  in  such  a 
way  as  to  make  a  connected  whole  of  his  thought.  And 
thus  the  world  has  never  found  in  his  works  a  clear  answer 
28 


4IQ         PESTALOZZI:    HIS  LIFE  AND    WORK. 

to  the  often-repeated  question :  "  What  is  the  Pestalozzian 
method  ?  " 

The  Song  of  the  Swan  was  the  last  of  these  attempts,  but, 
notwithstanding  the  luminous  touches  in  which  it  abounds, 
it  was  no  better  understood  than  the  others.  The  fact  is, 
that  in  order  perfectly  to  understand  Pestalozzi's  philo- 
sophical thought,  it  is  necessary  to  follow  him  throughout 
his  life,  and  above  all  throughout  his  long  series  of  writings. 
There  can  then  no  longer  be  any  doubt  that  what  he  aimed 
at,  what  he  preached,  and  what  he  partially  realized  in  his 
practical  work  was,  if  we  may  use  the  word  in  an  immaterial 
sense,  an  organic  education. 

But  the  benefits  of  a  true  philosophy  are  not  confined  to 
those  alone  who  are  able  to  formulate  it.  Whole  nations 
are  almost  unconsciously  penetrated  by  philosophical  ideas, 
which,  gradually  influencing  feelings,  opinions  and  conduct, 
lend  to  each  civilization  its  distinctive  features. 

Pestalozzi's  philosophy  has  already  begun  to  produce  an 
effect  of  this  sort.  It  is  very  little  known  and  yet  its 
influence  is  spreading.  Among  the  men  who  occupy  them- 
selves with  education,  there  are  few  whose  minds  do  not 
bear  some  trace  of  it,  even  though  they  may  know  nothing 
of  Pestalozzi's  labours. 

The  fact  is,  that  the  large  numbers  of  men  who  in  some 
way  or  another  came  into  contact  with  his  work ,  all  carried 
away  something  valuable  with  them,  many  perhaps  without 
knowing  it.  And  then  afterwards,  these  same  men,  scattered 
over  many  countries  as  teachers,  writers,  or  even  as  private 
individuals,  diffused  around  them,  as  it  were,  some  portion 
of  the  master's  spirit,  even  when  criticizing  and  condemning 
his  method  as  they  had  seen  it  practised. 

And  so  we  are  struck  to-day  by  the  fact  that  in  hardly 
any  country  is  anything  written  upon  education,  or  any  edu- 
cational institution  founded  or  reformed,  without  principles 
being  invoked  which  we  owe  in  a  great  measure  to  Pestalozzi. 
They  are,  indeed,  rarely  attributed  to  the  Swiss  philosopher, 
but  generally  to  Rabelais,  Montaigne,  Charron,  the  Port 
Royalists,  or  Rousseau,  to  mention  French  writers  only. 

It  is  indeed  true  that  Pestalozzi's  philosophy  contains 
many  truths  which  had  been  discovered  and  proclaimed  to 
the  world  long  before  him,  but  before  him  these  truths  had 
not  been  seen  to  depend  upon  a  common  central  principle, 


PESTALOZZPS  PHILOSOPHY.  411 

they  had  not  been  applied  to  a  rational  system  of  teaching, 
they  had  not  been  built  up  into  a  system  of  elementary 
education  suited  to  the  wants  of  the  people.  Further,  these 
truths  had  not  been  proclaimed  without  a  great  admixture 
of  error,  so  that  they  had  been  of  little  practical  value  for 
education. 

But  when  the  influence  of  Pestalozzi's  work,  an  influence 
indeed  often  unsuspected,  began  to  make  itself  felt  by  open- 
ing men's  minds  to  a  conception  of  rational  education,  the 
true  principles  to  be  found  in  the  older  writers  excited  more 
attention  and  were  better  understood,  and  society  was 
seized  with  a  desire  to  apply  them  to  the  reform  of  a  system 
of  education,  the  defects  and  vices  of  which  it  was  no  longer 
possible  to  ignore. 

The  time  has  come,  then,  when  it  is  of  the  highest  im- 
portance to  obtain  an  exact  and  complete  knowledge  of  Pes- 
talozzi's work,  that  we  may  confer  upon  nations  the  benefits 
of  a  rational  education,  and  thus  ensure  the  future  of 
civilization. 


CHAPTER  XXI. 

PESTALOZZl'S  ELEMENTARY  METHOD. 

General  statement.  Distinction  between  this  method  and  th& 
different  ways  in  which  attempts  have  been  made  to  apply 
it.  Regarded  by  its  author  as  an  indispensable  means  for 
raising  the  people,  and  establishing  order  and  harmony  in 
society.  Still  the  chief  remedy  for  many  social  evils. 

FROM  his  childhood  Pestalozzi  had  been  profoundly  touched 
by  the  poverty  and  sufferings  of  a  great  number  of  his 
fellow-countrymen,  and  especially  by  their  state  of  moral 
and  intellectual  destitution ;  he  had  longed  to  rescue  them, 
and  make  "  men "  of  them,  and  had  worked  for  this  noble 
end  with  all  the  power  of  his  ardent,  loving  soul.  It  was  in 
concentrating  his  desires  and  actions  on  this  single  object 
that  he  arrived  at  the  philosophical  conclusions  which  in- 
spired his  whole  after  life. 

It  was  to  elementary  education  that  he  first  applied  his 
principles ;  and  his  marvellous  success  proved  the  truth  of 
his  views.  We  will  not  here  enter  into  all  the  details  of 
his  methods,  but  merely  call  attention  in  a  few  words  to  the 
many  improvements  which  are  owing  to  him,  and  which, 
adopted  by  most  of  our  schools,  are  to-day  rendering  impor- 
tant and  incontestable  services. 

Pestalozzi's  philosophical  doctrine  has  certain  immediate 
and  obvious  consequences  which  regulate  the  elementary 
method  of  teaching. 

To  learn,  the  child  must  be  always  active.  He  learns  only 
by  his  own  impressions,  and  not  from  words,  which  must 
accompany  his  ideas  to  fix  them,  but  are  impotent  to  produce 
them. 

Words  apart  from  the  ideas  they  represent  have  no  value, 
and,  inasmuch  as  it  is  possible  for  the  child  to  connect  them 
with  ideas  to  which  they  do  not  belong,  are  even  sometimes 


PESTALOZZPS  ELEMENTARY  METHOD,      413 

dangerous.  The  child  nmst,  as  it  were,  be  provided  with 
fruitful  nnd  salutary  impressions,  following  each  other  in  a 
natural  and  carefully  graduated  order.  He  must  then  be 
required  to  express  clearly  in  speech  all  the  ideas  these 
impressions  suggest;  and,  lastly,  he  must  be  made  to  obtain 
a  thorough  mastery  of  each  idea  before  being  introduced  to 
a  new  one. 

These  principles  had  been  recognized  by  Pestalozzi  as 
early  as  1774,  at  the  time  that  he  was  endeavouring  to  bring 
up  his  child,  then  between  three  and  four  years  of  age,  in 
accordance  with  the  ideas  of  Rousseau.  He  had  seen  in 
them  a  means  for  regenerating  society  by  the  reform  of 
elementary  education ;  and  without  considering  his  strength, 
he  conceived  an  irresistible  desire  to  put  his  hand  to  the 
work.  This  is  the  explanation  of  those  successive  enter- 
prises in  which,  so  firm  was  his  faith  in  these  principles 
that,  despite  failure  and  ruin,  he  steadily  persevered  in  his 
endeavour  to  give  a  practical  proof  of  their  truth. 

In  reviewing  the  different  means  for  elementary  teaching 
that  we  owe  to  Pestalozzi,  we  shall  follow  the  order  of  their 
use  in  the  course  of  the  child's  development. 

The  exercises  of  sense-impression  and  language,  after- 
wards called  object-lessons,  are  intended  to  teach  the  child  to 
observe  and  to  talk — to  recount,  that  is,  all  the  impressions  he 
receives  from  the  objects  which  surround  him,  and  to  which 
the  master  calls  his  attention.  In  this  way  the  child's  words 
and  sentences,  which  may  be  corrected,  if  necessary,  are  really 
his  own  work,  and  express  his  own  thoughts. 

Sense-impression  was  also  applied  to  arithmetic,  the  child 
learning  numbers  and  their  relations  by  the  sight  of  objects 
that  he  could  count.  Pestalozzi  employed  for  this  purpose  his 
table  of  units  and  table  of  fractions.  The  series  of  these 
exercises  being  rather  long,  people  tried  to  shorten  it,  and 
Pestalozzi's  tables  have  been  replaced  by  other  similar  inven- 
tions. These  changes,  however,  have  brought  more  loss  than 
gain,  for  the  best  pupils  of  the  schools  of  to-day  are  very  far 
behind  Pestalczzi's  in  mental  arithmetic. 

The  graphic  exercises  without  rule  or  compass  served 
equally  well  as  a  preparation  for  linear  drawing,  elementary 
geometry,  or  writing.  For  these  exercises  Pestalozzi  used 
slates,  which,  from  the  ease  with  which  they  can  be  cleaned, 
have  been  of  immense  service  in  primary  schools. 


414         PESTALOZZI:    HIS  LIFE  AND    WORK. 

In  drawing  the  children  were  taught  to  judge  of  the  length 
of  lines  and  size  of  angles  by  the  eye,  and  to  work  out  a 
certain  number  of  combinations  on  a  given  plan.  They  were 
not  limited  to  copying  models,  but  had  to  design  symmetrical 
and  graceful  figures ;  and  thus  they  were  exercising  at  the 
same  time,  not  only  their  eye  and  hand,  but  their  taste  and 
inventive  faculties. 

Pestalozzi  called  relation  of  forms  or  sense-impression  of 
forms  those  graphic  exercises  which  served  as  an  introduction 
to  geometry.  The  child  had  first  to  distinguish  between 
vertical,  horizontal,  oblique,  and  parallel  lines  ;  right,  acute, 
and  obtuse  angles  ;  different  kinds  of  triangles,  quadrilaterals, 
etc.  Then  he  had  to  find  out  at  how  many  points  a  given 
number  of  straight  lines  could  be  made  to  cut  one  another ; 
or  how  many  angles,  triangles,  or  quadrilaterals  could  be 
formed  from  them.  These  exercises  gradually  led  the  child 
to  the  first  problems  of  theoretical  geometry,  which  he  at- 
tempted with  all  the  more  pleasure  that  he  was  able  to  find 
most  of  the  demonstrations  for  himself. 

Writing  gives  little  difficulty  to  children  whose  hand  and 
eye  have  been  already  well  trained.  Pestalozzi  taught  it 
side  by  side  with  reading,  but  he  did  not  begin  these  exer- 
cises till  after  those  we  have  already  mentioned.  Before  he 
taught  at  Burgdorf,  he  had  already  drawn  up  a  manual  for 
teaching  to  read,  in  which  he  had  first  suggested  the  use  of 
movable  letters.  His  method,  which  has  to-day  been  gener- 
ally adopted,  was  to  teach  from  a  series  of  groups  of  letters, 
arranged  in  order  of  difficulty. 

Pestalozzi's  method  of  teaching  geography  has  completely 
revolutionized  the  teaching  of.  that  science.  The  child  is  first 
taught  to  observe  the  country  about  his  home,  not  on  the 
map  but  on  the  land  itself  ;  it  is  the  child  himself  who  draws 
the  map,  correcting  the  mistakes  in  his  first  attempt  after 
another  visit  to  the  spot.  Having  thus  learned  to  understand 
and  read  maps,  he  continues  his  study  by  the  help  of  large 
blank  maps  hung  on  the  wall. 

From  the  very  first  day  geography  is  connected  with  other 
sciences,  such  as  natural  history,  agriculture,  local  geology, 
etc.,  which  make  it  very  attractive  even  for  children. 

Pestalozzi  taught  the  elements  of  natural  history  by  his 
exercises  of  sense-impression  and  language ;  that  is  to  say, 
the  master  brought  different  objects  under  the  children's 


PESTALOZZPS  ELEMENTARY  METHOD.      415 

direct  observation,  and  by  judicious  suggestions  encouraged 
them  to  talk  about  them.  Preference  was  given  to  those 
objects  that  the  children  brought  home  from  their  walks,  but 
these  were  supplemented  by  collections  of  minerals,  plants, 
stuffed  animals,  etc. 

In  the  exercises  that  we  have  described,  Pestalozzi's  chief 
means  for  maintaining  the  attention  and  activity  of  the  whole 
class,  and  for  fixing  names  in  the  memory  of  the  children,  was 
to  make  them  repeat  each  correct  statement  several  times  in 
chorus. 

When  this  is  done  in  strict  time,  the  result  is  a  sort  of 
chant  which  is  not  particularly  agreeable  to  listen  to,  but 
which  has  no  serious  disadvantages.  The  children  must 
be  taught  not  to  shout,  and  care  must  be  taken  that  each 
one  takes  part  in  the  exercise,  any  who  seem  inattentive 
being  questioned  separately.  But  Pestalozzi's  mind  was  so 
often  full  of  other  thoughts,,  and  he  so  often  allowed  his  zeal 
to  carry  him  away,  that  these  precautions  were  often  entirely 
neglected,  the  result  being  a  noise  and  confusion  which  not 
only  spoilt  everything,  but  led  many  who  had  no  other  data 
to  guide  them  to  utterly  condemn  the  method.  And  yet  the 
plan  in  itself  was  excellent ;  nor  has  anything  yet  been  found 
to  replace  it.  It  had  too  a  hygienic  advantage,  inasmuch  as 
it  strengthened  the  children's  chests  by  constantly  exercis- 
ing the  organs  of  speech.  But  it  has  had  bad  imitators,  who 
have  copied  the  form  without  catching  the  spirit,  making 
children  repeat  statements  which  they  had  not  themselves 
formulated,  which  were  not  the  expression  of  their  own 
observation,  and  which  sometimes  even  had  not  been  ex- 
plained to  them.  This  practice,  diametrically  opposed  as  it 
was  to  the  method  of  the  man  whose  name  it  bore,  must  have 
been  the  cause  of  many  an  unsound  judgment  upon  the 
master's  doctrine. 

Singing  played  an  important  part  in  all  Pestalozzi's  estab- 
lishments. The  youngest  children  first  learned  to  sing  as 
they  had  learned  to  talk — by  imitation.  In  this  way  they 
formed  their  voice,  ear,  and  taste,  before  knowing  their 
notes.  When  they  came  to  theory  and  notation,  time  was 
taken  first,  sound  being  left  till  afterwards.  The  reason  of 
this  was,  that  time  being,  as  it  were,  a  mathematical  part 
of  music,  the  children  easily  grasped  it,  having  been  well 
prepared  for  it  by  their  previous  training  in  counting 


416         PESTALOZZI:   HIS  LIFE  AND    WORK. 

Every  lesson  in  theory  ended  with  a  few  songs  by  way  of 
recreation. 

The  admission  of  gymnastics  into  the  programme  of  a 
school  was  another  innovation  due  to  Pestalozzi.  He  attached 
quite  as  much  importance  to  this  exercise  as  to  any  of  the 
other  lessons.  It  was  in  gymnastics  too  that  the  value  of 
gradation,  that  favourite  principle  of  his,  was  brought  out 
most  clearly. 

We  cannot  here  speak  of  the  other  branches  of  instruction, 
because  the  works  in  which  he  sought  to  apply  his  method 
to  them  were  never  finished.  We  will  merely  add  a  few 
words  on  the  subject  of  the  study  of  language,  on  account  of 
its  great  importance. 

Pestalozzi's  pupils  learned  to  use  their  mother-tongue  by 
constant  and  varied  practice.  In  his  first  undertakings  the 
language  learned  in  this  way  was  German,  but  at  Yverdun 
French  was  added,  and  after  that  time  the  children  were 
exercised  in  both  languages.  But  it  was  also  necessary  to 
teach  them  grammar,  and  as  Pestalozzi  had  not  applied  his 
method  to  that  particular  branch  of  study,  the  masters  had 
to  be  satisfied  with  the  books  already  in  use.  Pestalozzi 
seems  to  have  sought  in  vain  for  a  method  of  teaching  gram- 
mar in  accordance  with  his  principles  ;*  however,  with  a  zeal 
and  perseverance  that  nothing  could  daunt,  he  continued  his 
attempt  to  find  some  simple  and  rational  method  of  teaching 
foreign  and  dead  languages  to  the  end  of  his  life. 

We  have  only  been  able  to  give  here  a  general  idea  of 
Pestalozzi's  application  of  his  method  to  the  different 
branches  of  elementary  education.  The  complete  series  of 
these  exercises  will  be  found  in  our  Philosophy  and  Practice 
of  Education. 

But  we  cannot  repeat  too  often  that  Pestalozzi's  method  is 
spirit  and  life,  and  that  before  it  can  bear  fruit  this  spirit 
must  have  sunk  deep  into  the  master's  mind  and  heart.  A 
man  will  understand  that  he  is  faithful  to  this  method  when 
his  children,  freed  from  all  artificial  stimulus,  and  eager 
merely  for  truth,  knowledge,  and  increased  powers,  bring  a 
joyful  diligence  to  all  his  lessons. 

1  We  think  Pestalozzi  would  in  a  great  measure  have  found  what  he 
•wanted  in  Becker's  Organism  of  Language,  a  book  which  was  not  pub- 
lished till  long  after  his  death. 


PESTALOZZPS  ELEMENTARY  METHOD.      417 

It  is  true  that  this  happy  result  is  sometimes  obtained 
by  men  who  are  far  from  thinking  themselves  followers  of 
Pestalozzi,  whose  name,  perhaps,  they  have  never  even 
heard.  But  this  is  because  the  master's  philosophy,  spreading 
slowly  and  silently,  has  influenced  their  thought  without 
their  knowledge. 

Would  that  its  influence  had  reached  everywhere,  for  then 
we  should  not  so  often  see  the  natural  law  of  human  develop- 
ment violated  in  the  home  and  the  school,  where  it  sometimes 
seems  as  though  the  object  were  rather  to  hinder  its  action 
than  to  help  it  on. 

Publications  intended  for  children  are,  however,  improv- 
ing ;  indeed,  for  some  years  now,  marvellous,  insipid  stories 
and  other  artificial  puerilities  have  been  more  or  less  given 
up,  and  a  serious  attempt  made  to  interest  children  while 
giving  them  solid  instruction.  This  is  a  great  step  forward, 
but  it  is  not  all.  A  large  number  of  children's  books,  espe- 
cially in  France,  may  still  be  reproached  with  making  an 
abuse  of  fiction  by  multiplying  dramatic  and  romantic  situa- 
tions, and  by  interesting  the  reader  less  by  the  instruction 
they  give  than  by  the  adventures  and  incidents  which  are 
its  framework.  And  thus  children  grow  weary  of  these 
things,  their  taste  is  spoiled,  and  it  becomes  difficult  for  them 
to  take  pleasure  in  true  history  or  real  travels,  and  often 
indeed  in  any  serious  and  sustained  intellectual  work. 

We  have  now  given  a  general  sketch  of  Pestalozzi's  ele- 
mentary method  in  its  application  to  teaching,  properly  so 
called.  But  the  instruction  of  children  was  not  the  only,  nor 
even  the  chief  aim  to  which  this  extraordinary  man  devoted 
the  ardent  activity  of  his  life  ;  he  was  anxious  above  all  else 
to  reform  their  moral  and  religious  education,  and  develop 
their  hearts,  and  so  form  pious,  moral  men,  devoted  to  their 
duty,  their  neighbour,  and  their  country. 

We  must  first  remark  that  this  moral  development  already 
resulted  to  a  certain  extent  from  the  means  employed  for 
teaching ;  indeed,  voluntary,  varied,  and  steady  activity  and 
the  quest  of  truth  for  its  own  sake,  and  not  for  reasons  of 
pride  or  interest,  were  eminently  calculated  to  awaken  the 
noblest  sentiments  of  the  soul,  and  establish  the  supremacy  of 
the  spirit  over  the  flesh.  But  Pestalozzi's  method  can  also 
be  applied  in  a  more  direct  manner  to  the  development  of  the 
child's  heart,  for  since  it  always  makes  the  child's  best  feel- 


418         PESTALOZZI:    HIS  LIFE  AND    WORK. 

ings  the  spring  of  action,  these  feelings  are  constantly  gain- 
ing in  strength.  It  is  thus  that  for  the  moral  training  of 
children,  Pestalozzi  relies  much  less  upon  discourses  and 
exhortations  than  upon  the  practice  of  the  Christian  virtues 
— faith,  love,  patience,  pardon,  etc.,  a  practice  to  which  he 
wishes  the  child  to  be  accustomed  from  the  very  cradle,  such 
small  things  being  utilized  at  first  as  may  perhaps  seem 
trifles  to  us,  but  which  are  nevertheless  the  foundations  of  all 
piety,  morality,  and  wisdom. 

The  influence  of  Pestalozzi's  method  upoii  the  child's  moral 
and  religious  development  has  been  somewhat  underrated, 
especially  by  certain  pious  men  who  feel  the  need  of  the 
Gospel  for  the  sanctification  of  souls,  but  who,  a  prey  to  a 
fatal  illusion,  think  that  the  explanation  of  dogma  alone 
can  sow  the  seeds  of  Christian  sentiments  in  a  young  heart, 
and  that  this  will  always  be  enough.  Pestalozzi  said :  "  Ele- 
mentary education  alone  can  regenerate  and  save  society." 
"  No,"  say  they,  "  the  Gospel  alone  can  perform  this  miracle." 
But  there  is  no  real  contradiction  between  these  two  state- 
ments. 

Society  can  only  be  raised  by  the  raising  of  the  individual. 
Now,  if  the  Gospel  is  to  raise  men,  it  must  not  only  sink  deep 
into  their  minds,  but  become  as  it  were  a  part  of  their  being, 
forming  their  conscience,  and  supplying  the  principle  upon 
which  their  feelings,  aspirations,  and  will  must  depend. 
-  The  preaching  of  the  Gospel,  however,  does  not  always 
suffice  for  this ;  even  when  souls  have  been  really  touched, 
the  effects  are  too  often  transitory,  disappearing  with  the. 
generation  that  experiences  them.  A  period  of  faith  is  often 
succeeded  by  a  period,  of  incredulity,  and  it  is  by  no  means 
an  unusual  thing  to  see  the  children  of  fervent  Christians 
Christian  in  nothing  but  the  name.  And  so  it  comes  to  pass 
that,  even  in  countries  where  it  has  been  preached  for  cen- 
turies, the  Gospel  is  still  a  stranger  to  the  hearts  of  the 
majority  of  men. 

Christian  truth  does  sometimes  take  possession  of  a  man 
in  a  moment,  and  such  absolute  possession  that  it  never 
again  forsakes  him ;  but  such  cases  are  rare.  As  a  general 
rule,  a  thorough  education  is  needed,  not  the  outward  and 
superficial  memory-education  of  the  time  before  Pestalozzi, 
but  elementary  education,  as  he  calls  it,  an  education,  that 
is,  which  sets  the  feelings  and  faculties  in  motion,  gives  them 


PESTALOZZPS  ELEMENTARY  METHOD.       4'9 

a  direction,  and,  by  thus  making  him  really  assimilate 
morality  and  knowledge,  renders  the  child  the  chief  agent 
in  his  own  development. 

The  philosophy  of  the  eighteenth  century  declared  man  to 
be  originally  good,  but  spoiled  by  society.  This  was  equiva- 
lent to  saying  that  society,  in  spite  of  being  the  work  of  man 
who  is  good,  is  in  itself  bad. 

In  fighting  against  this  deplorable  error,  men  unfortunately 
fell  into  the  opposite  mistake,  not  only  declaring  man  to  be 
originally  bad,  but  denying  that  he  bore  within  him  a  single 
germ  of  good.  And  thus,  by  a  very  natural  consequence, 
Pestalozzi  was  condemned  because  he  looked  upon  education 
as  a  development.  And  yet  it  is  absolutely  certain  that  if 
there  were  no  trace  of  good  feelings  in  the  child's  soul,  good 
feelings  could  exercise  no  influence  over  him,  and  that  if 
there  were  no  seeds  of  good  in  his  heart,  all  men's  efforts  for 
his  moral  education  would  be  worse  than  useless. 

As  we  have  seen,  Pestalozzi  undoubtedly  recognized  the 
original  existence  of  evil  in  the  heart  of  man,  though  in 
stating  his  views  he  too  often  left  this  important  truth  in  the 
background,  partly  perhaps  because  he  was  chiefly  struck 
by  the  innumerable  germs  of  goodness,  dormant  it  is  true, 
but  yet  alive,  in  even  the  most  degraded  souls,  partly  because, 
his  aim  being  to  interest  his  contemporaries  in  the  work  by 
which  he  hoped  to  regenerate  and  save  the  suffering  people, 
he  felt  bound  before  everything  else  to  prove  that  such  a 
regeneration  was  possible. 

Whatever  may  be  the  aim  of  education,  success  is  not 
possible  without  method  /  some  procedure,  that  is,  in  con- 
formity with  the  natural  law  of  man's  development.  And 
thus,  in  whatever  religious  or  philosophical  doctrine  we  may 
wish  to  train  children,  we  must  always  take  for  a  starting- 
point  their  thoughts  and  feelings  as  they  are,  according  to  the 
axiom  which  says  that  before  you  can  take  a  man  anywhere, 
you  must  first  go  where  he  is ;  their  powers,  too,  must  be 
developed  by  exercise,  and  they  must  be  taught  to  apply  their 
strength  to  raising  themselves  slowly  to  the  knowledge  of 
truth  and  the  practice  of  duty. 

Now,  this  is  just  what  Pestalozzi  proposed  to  do.  Con- 
eidered  in  itself,  his  method  is  independent  of  all  dogmatic 
opinions,  and  it  is  for  this  reason  that  it  will  never  grow 
old,  but  at  all  times  and  in  all  countries  be  capable  of  appli- 


420         PESTALOZZI:    HIS  LIFE  AND    WORK. 

cation,  not  only  to  the  powers  of  the  body  and  mind,  but  also  to 
the  divine  element  within  the  soul. 

In  consecrating  his  life  to  a  reform  of  elementary  educa- 
tion, Pestalozzi  not  only  sought  to  stop  the  sources  of  indi- 
vidual poverty  and  suffering,  but  also  to  root  out  vices  which 
were  undermining  the  whole  of  European  society,  and  pre- 
paring a  fatal  catastrophe  for  civilization.  This  idea  cornea 
out  in  most  of  his  works.  We  need  only  remind  our  readers 
of  the  almost  prophetic  words  he  addressed  to  Mrs.  Niederer 
when  entrusting  her  with  his  manuscript  on  the  causes  of  the 
French  Revolution. 

What  Pestalozzi  considered  the  real  cause  of  the  evil  was 
not  so  much  the  absence  of  instruction  for  the  people  as  a 
vicious  method  of  teaching,  which  paralyzed  the  faculties  it 
should  have  developed,  and  blunted  the  sympathies  it  should 
have  quickened.  And  yet.  as  a  general  rule,  it  is  this  old 
method  which  has  continued  to  prevail  in  the  remarkable 
extension  that  has  nearly  everywhere  been  given  to  popular 
instruction  in  the  course  of  this  century.  And  thus  it  happens 
that  this  grand  diffusion  of  enlightenment,  as  it  is  called,  has 
often  but  aggravated  the  very  evil  it  was  intended  to  cure. 

As  Pestalozzi  considered  his  elementary  education  to  be 
the  chief  means  for  preserving  our  civilization  from  the 
terrible  dangers  he  foresaw,  we  must  endeavour  to  show  how 
such  an  education,  if  generally  applied,  might  contribute  to 
bring  about  a  change  in  existing  conditions,  and  correct 
many  of  the  vices  which  are  to-day  troubling  society  and 
threatening  its  future. 

In  the  first  place,  it  would  give  true  liberty  of  heart  and 
mind,  without  which  no  other  liberty  can  be  enjoyed ;  it 
would  tend  to  re-establish  in  every  citizen  that  independence 
of  development  and  character  which  teaches  a  man  to  observe 
and  judge  for  himself,  without  allowing  himself  to  be  absorbed 
by  party  or  sect,  and  made  a  mere  puppet  in  the  hands  6f 
others.  We  should  then  no  longer  see  the  great  majority  of 
men  with  no  other  beliefs,  judgments,  or  feelings  than  the 
beliefs,  judgments,  and  feelings  of  the  mass,  blindly  following 
the  lead  of  the  most  skilful  and  violent  mob  orator. 

Moreover,  this  really  educational  instruction,  by  making 
the  child  the  agent  of  his  own  knowledge,  gives  him  both 
taste  and  facility  for  learning  by  himself.  Formed  thus,  the 
young  man  takes  pleasure  in  devoting  his  leisure  to  self- 


PESTALOZZPS  ELEMENTARY  METHOD.      421 

instruction,  and  thus  avoids  temptations  and  the  formation 
of  habits  which  are  often  no  less  deadly  in  their  effect  on 
society  than  on  his  family  and  himself. 

This  instruction,  too,  that  every  one  continues  to  acquire  by 
his  own  observations  and  his  own  judgment,  shields  men  from 
the  tyranny  of  fashionable  opinions, — opinions  of  the  majority, 
that  is, — which  at  certain  times  are  almost  forced  upon  us, 
however  full  of  error  they  may  be.  And  it  is  not  alone  in 
economical  science  that  men  blindly  accept  false  systems. 

To-day  the  craze  for  natural  science  has  replaced  the 
unintelligent  contempt  with  which  it  was  formerly  regarded; 
it  has  even  come  to  be  spoken  of  as  science,  as  though  there 
were  no  other ;  and  its  authority,  often  invoked  even  outside 
its  domain,  is  almost  the  only  authority  still  recognized. 
And  thus  we  hear  people  declaring  that  the  progress  of 
natural  science  has  put  moral  science  to  shame.  May  we 
not  believe  that  men  would  be  less  exposed  to  such  a  con- 
fusion of  ideas  if  their  knowledge  were  the  fruit  of  faculties 
trained  from  infancy,  and  the  conquest  of  their  attention, 
spirit  of  observation,  and  independent  judgment  ? 

One  of  the  greatest  dangers  in  these  democratic  times  is 
the  separation  in  the  education  of  the  different  classes  of 
society.  The  rich  have  one  education,  the  poor  another; 
the  two  classes,  each  going  its  own  way,  get  farther  and 
farther  apart ;  with  different  habits,  tastes,  ideas,  and  feel- 
ings, nay,  with  a  different  language  even,  they  end  by  no 
longer  understanding  each  other ;  and  so  misunderstanding 
breeds  mistrust,  and  mistrust  not  infrequently  hatred.  It 
is  easy  to  see  how  much  this  evil  would  be  lessened  if  all 
children  could  remain  together  in  the  same  schools  up  to  the 
age  of  thirteen  or  fourteen;  for,  by  that  time,  they  would 
have  a  common  stock  of  ideas,  knowledge,  and  language,  and 
durable  relations  would  be  possible  between  them.  Schools 
in  the  spirit  of  Pestalozzi  would  render  such  an  education 
as  this  possible,  without  even  the  richest  and  most  particular 
parents  having  anything  to  fear  for  their  children.  We 
should  not  only  want  teachers,  however,  animated  by  Pesta- 
lozzi's  spirit,  but  a  considerable  increase  in  the  number  of 
primary  classes.  But  this  latter  reform  we  shall  certainly 
have  to  wait  for,  although  the  need  is  very  generally  felt. 

There  is,  however,  a  reform  which  might  easily  be  realized 
at  once,  and  which,  though  less  complete,  would  still  do 


422          PESTALOZZI:    HIS  LIFE  AND    WORK. 

much  to  lessen  the  lamentable  antagonism  that  so  often 
divides  men  engaged  in  different  occupations. 

It  is  now  the  custom  for  children  intended  for  classical 
studies  to  begin  Latin  at  eight  or  nine  years  of  age,  from 
which  time  they  are,  if  not  entirely  separated,  at  any  rate 
distinguished  from  their  comrades  who  are  preparing  for 
industrial  pursuits.  Their  work  is  quite  different  from  the 
work  of  the  others,  and  they  are  more  or  less  encouraged  to 
hold  themselves  aloof, 

This  state  of  things  is  not  only  bad  for  the  harmony  and 
sympathy  that  it  is  so  desirable  to  see  existing  between  al1 
classes  of  society,  but  has  besides  the  serious  disadvantage 
of  compelling  parents  to  decide  upon  a  calling  for  their 
children  before  they  are  in  a  position  to  judge  of  their 
tastes  and  aptitudes,  with  the  result  that  many  boys  are 
launched  into  classical  studies  who  will  never  succeed  in 
them,  and  many,  who  at  fourteen  are  clever  and  eager  to 
learn,  find  themselves  shut  out  from  the  liberal  professions 
because  they  did  not  make  their  choice  before.  This  state  of 
things  is  also  exceedingly  bad  for  the  studies  themselves. 

Pestalozzi  was  long  ago  struck  by  the  painful  waste  of 
time  and  labour  involved  in  trying  to  teach  children  Latin 
before  they  are  acquainted  with  the  principles  of  their  own 
language,  that  is  to  say,  before  they  have  any  knowledge  of 
grammar,  without  which  it  is  impossible  for  them  to  arrive 
at  any  understanding  of  a  dead  language.  He  even  insisted 
that  the  study  of  a  foreign  modern  language  should  precede 
the  study  of  Latin,  that  the  child  might  be  provided  with  a 
first  simple  means  of  grammatical  comparison. 

This  system  has  since  been  attempted  a  hundred  times  iu 
different  countries,  even  in  important  public  establishments 
as  at  Berne,  and  has  always  met  with  complete  success. 
Pupils  who  have  only  commenced  the  study  of  dead  languages 
at  the  age  of  thirteen  or  fourteen,  have  invariably  made  such 
rapid  progress,  that  in  a  few  years  they  have  more  than  made 
np  for  the  time  which  they  seemed  to  have  lost,  but  which 
in  reality  they  had  employed  far  more  usefully. 

And  yet  this  reform  has  not  yet  been  generally  adopted, 
for  nothing  is  more  difficult  than  to  change  a  system  of 
studies  which  has  slowly  grown,  as  it  were,  into  a  national 
custom,  and  which  is  intended  to  preserve  a  certain  unity 
between  the  schools  of  a-  country.  Books  and  methods 


PESTALOZZPS  ELEMENTARY  METHOD.      423 

adapted  to  children  -who  as  yet  know  nothing,  would  not  of 
course  do  for  those  whose  minds  were  already  well  formed. 
Besides,  the  reform  would  have  to  be  carried  out  in  all 
schools  simultaneously,  so  that  pupils  might  pass  from  one  to 
another  without  detriment  to  their  work.  This  reform,  how- 
ever, would  be  so  advantageous  in  every  respect,  that  it  will 
certainly  some  day  be  adopted. 

Ono  of  the  chief  vices  of  modern  society  is  pride,  in  all  its 
forms :  vanity,  ambition,  the  spirit  of  rivalry  and  domina- 
tion, the  desire  to  shine,  to  rise  above  others,  to  surpass  them 
in  power  and  in  wealth ;  and  this  vicious  tendency,  into 
which  our  nature  so  easily  slips,  is  aggravated  nearly  every 
day  in  class-rooms  where  the  activity  of  the  pupils  is  stimu- 
lated by  prizes  and  other  unwise  means.  Instead  of  being 
satisfied  with  the  natural  emulation  which,  in  a  properly 
conducted  school,  results  from  the  very  nature  of  things,  and 
from  the  satisfaction  of  doing  well  and  meeting  with  success, 
teachers  employ  all  sorts  of  artificial  means  to  excite  and 
keep  alive  an  unhealthy  and  un-Christian  emulation,  a  desire 
for  distinctions  and  honours,  and  a  spirit  of  rivalry,  which  is 
not  always  unmixed  with  spite,  envy,  and  hatred. 

In  his  very  earliest  works,  Pestalozzi  condemned  and  pro- 
scribed these  artificial  means  of  exciting  emulation ;  and  in 
his  after  labours  he  did  better  still  and  rendered  them  super- 
fluous. His  elementary  exercises,  in  fact,  by  reason  of  their 
starting-point,  gradation,  and  connection,  are  so  thoroughly 
adapted  to  the  faculties,  tastes,  and  needs  of  the  child,  that  he 
takes  part  in  them  with  pleasure,  the  mere  satisfaction  of 
feeling  that  he  is  learning  and  discovering,  and  that  his 
powers  are  increasing,  being  a  sound  and  sufficient  stimulus. 
And  so  when  we  teach  children  by  the  rational  elementary 
method,  we  are  no  longer  tempted  to  make  their  vanity  the 
stimulus  to  activity. 

These  are  a  few  only  of  the  points  of  view  from  which  the 
discovery  of  the  great  educational  reformer  appears  to  us  to 
be  the  chief  factor  in  the  solution  of  the  social  problem  by 
which'  we  are  confronted  to-day. 

To  sum  up,  that  part  of  Pestalozzi's  work  which  will  endure, 
and  that  which  constitutes  him  the  benefactor  of  humanity,  is 
his  application  of  his  philosophy  to  an  elementary  method  of 
education.  If  we  have  succeeded  in  our  attempt  to  explain 
this  method,  it  will  be  clear  to  everybody  that  it  does  not 


424          PESTALOZZI:    HIS  LIFE  AND    WORK. 

consist  in  a  certain  set  procedure,  and  that  no  perfect  type 
of  it  is  to  be  looked  for  in  what  was  done  either  at  Burgdorf 
or  Yverdun.  It  will  be  clear,  too,  why  Pestalozzi  himself 
was  never  entirely  satisfied  with  what  he  had  done,  and  why 
he  went  on  working  and  searching  till  his  life's  end. 

He  died  at  his  work,  this  noble  friend  of  the  poor  ;  and, 
dying,  he  addressed  a  supreme  appeal  to  those  who  might 
do  more  and  better  than  he  had  done,  and  continue  after  him 
the  work  that  he  had  the  sorrow  of  leaving  unfinished.  In 
his  humble  modesty  he  seems  to  have  forgotten  that  it  was 
he  who  had  accomplished  the  hardest  and  most  important 
task,  by  laying  bare  the  vices  of  his  time,  discovering  the 
principles  of  a  salutary  reform,  and  throwing  a  way  open  in 
which  we  have  now  but  to  walk. 

It  is  for  the  true  and  warm  friends  of  humanity,  those 
who,  understanding  Pestalozzi,  feel  themselves  at  one  with 
him  in  spirit  and  heart,  to  answer  his  appeal,  and  follow  him 
in  the  difficult  path  made  easier  by  his  devotion.  To-day,  the 
gate  stands  wide  open,  and  the  need  is  pressing. 


APPENDIX  I. 

NIEDERER'S  LITERARY  COLLABORATION,  AND  A  FEW  WRIT- 
INGS OF  PESTALOZZl'S  FIRST  PUBLISHED  IN   1873. 

WISHING,  in  OUT  work  on  Pestalozzi,  to  study  the  evolution 
of  his  thought  throughout  his  long  career  of  activity  and 
self-sacrifice,  we  endeavoured  to  consider  it  apart  from  the 
foreign  influences  which  occasionally  modified  its  manifesta- 
tions, and,  for  this  reason,  we  abstained  from  mentioning 
the  works  published  by  Pestalozzi  between  1807  and  1811, 
in  the  writing  of  which  Niederer  had  a  considerable  share. 

And  yet  these  works  deserve  to  be  known ;  for  though 
they  are  not  always  the  pure  and  true  expression  of  the 
master's  ideas,  they  still  give  an  interesting  insight  into  his 
opinions  and  the  working  of  his  mind  at  the  time  when  the 
institute  of  Yverdun  was  at  the  height  of  its  fame. 

Nor  is  that  part  of  these  works  which  is  to  be  attributed 
to  Niederer  without  importance.  Pestalozzi's  biographers 
have  not  forgiven  this  philosopher  for  having  put  something 
of  his  own  spirit  and  style  into  the  spirit  and  style  of  his 
master ;  and  this  grievance  has  made  them  unfair  to  the 
most  enlightened  of  Pestalozzi's  collaborators,  and  pre- 
vented their  recognizing  his  merit  and  the  very  real  part  he 
took  in  the  elaboration  of  the  "  method."  It  seems  to  us  that. 
to  rescue  from  oblivion  a  literary  collaboration  at  which  he 
worked  with  the  most  complete  self-forgetfulness,  is  the 
least  we  owe  to  his  memory. 

This  was  also  the  opinion  of  Seyffarth,  who,  in  1873, 
published,  as  an  Appendix  to  his  edition  of  Pestalozzi's 
works,  two  volumes  containing  the  writings  of  Niederer  and 
the  master's  other  collaborators. 

As  we  have  seen,  Pestalozzi  first  entrusted  to  Krusi  and 
Buss,  and  then  to  Schmidt,  the  writing  of  what  he  called  his 
29 


426  APPENDIX  L 


Elementary  Books  ;  that  is,  the  Book  for  Mothers  and  the 
Exercises  on  Number  and  Form.  In  these  works  the 
authors  did  but  follow  to  the  letter  the  instructions  of  their 
master,  so  that  we  can  hardly  hold  them  responsible  for  the 
monotony  and  extreme  prolixity  which  rendered  these  books 
useless  for  schools,  in  spite  of  the  excellence  of  the  principle 
of  which  they  were  such  a  clumsy  application.  This  being 
so,  we  need  say  no  more  about  them. 

With  Niederer's  collaboration,  however,  it  is  another 
matter.  When  quite  a  young  man,  he  had  enthusiastically 
adopted  Pestalozzi's  ideas  about  education ;  but  his  love  of 
generalization  and  philosophical  formulas  had  led  him  to 
elaborate  them  still  further,  and  give  them  the  form  and 
scientific  expression  they  seemed  to  him  to  lack. 

Pestalozzi,  with  his  childlike  trust  and  modest  diffidence, 
generally  submitted  his  manuscripts  to  Niederer  before 
printing,  though  he  was  not  always  entirely  satisfied  with 
his  alterations.  But  it  was  not  till  afterwards,  when  en- 
gaged, at  Schmidt's  suggestion,  in  preparing  a  new  edition 
of  his  works  for  Gotta,  that  he  was  tempted  to  repudiate  a 
part  of  what  Niederer  had  made  him  say.  His  repudiation 
is  to  be  found  in  the  notes  he  added  to  the  new  edition  of 
the  writings  we  are  now  about  to  consider. 

The  first  in  the  order  of  publication  is  entitled,  On  the 
Principles  and  Plan  of  a  Journal  announced  in  1807.  It 
tells  us  that  already  at  Burgdorf  Pestalozzi  had  undertaken  a 
Journal  of  Education,  of  which  the  first  number  only  had 
appeared ;  explains  the  circumstances  that  interrupted  the 
publication,  announces  the  re-issue  of  the  journal,  and  de- 
scribes its  character.  This  journal  is  no  doubt  that  which 
was  published  at  Yverdun  from  1807  to  1811  with  the  title 
of  Weekly  Journal  for  the  Education  of  Humanity. 

In  this  short  work  of  twenty-two  pages  Pestalozzi  is  only 
spoken  of  in  the  third  person ;  in  other  respects,  the  ideas 
and  style  show  clearly  enough  that  it  is  Niederer's  work. 
To  show  the  need  for  the  forthcoming  publication,  he  first 
points  out  that  Pestalozzi's  doctrine  is  generally  very  im- 
perfectly understood,  and  then  gives  the  two  chief  reasons. 

The  first  is  the  artificial  system  of  teaching  that  has  long 
been  in  use,  which  makes  it  exceedingly  difficult  for  men  to 
understand  and  approve  of  a  course  which  is  almost  4,he 
exact  opposite  of  the  course  they  have  always  pursued. 


NIEDEREKS  COLLABORATION.  427 

Accustomed  for  a  long  time  to  aim  at  superficial  rather  than 
solid  knowledge,  they  still  ask  the  same  of  the  new  method ; 
but  this  the  new  method  cannot  give  them.  Sometimes  even 
they  go  so  far  as  to  praise  the  method  for  results  which  it 
would  be  ashamed  to  own,  and  in  general  they  admire 
nothing  but  its  defects. 

The  second  reason  which  prevents  the  new  doctrine  from 
being  understood,  is  the  way  in  which  it  has  been  formulated 
and  put  into  practice  by  the  founder  and  his  helpers.  It 
was  not  in  accordance  with  Pestalozzi's  tastes  and  habits, 
nor  even  in  his  power,  to  draw  up  a  general  and  logical 
statement  of  his  idea ;  and  he  has  only  done  so  in  a  way 
which  was  fragmentary  and  incomplete.  As  for  the  method 
of  applying  it  to  teaching,  it  is  still  in  a  very  backward 
state,  and  demands  much  time  and  labour.  Even  the  ele- 
mentary books  already  published  lack  one  of  the  essential 
conditions  of  success ;  for  while  they  give  certain  series  of 
exercises,  they  do  not  explain  the  principles  that  are  to 
guide  the  teacher,  or  the  position  he  is  to  occupy  with  re- 
gard to  his  scholars. 

These  are  clearly  enough  Niederer's  own  opinions,  and  the 
criticism  is  a  fair  one.  It  is  only  surprising  that  Pestalozzi 
should  have  published  the  work  in  his  own  name. 

It  is  to  fill  these  gaps,  to  help  the  world  to  a  clearer  and 
more  complete  understanding  of  the  new  doctrine,  that  the 
author  of  the  pamphlet  thinks  the  publication  of  a  journal  to 
be  indispensable.  He  ends  with  a  few  words  as  to  the  sub- 
jects to  be  treated  in  the  journal,  and  asks  all  friends  of 
educational  progress  to  contribute  to  its  pages. 

A  second  publication  of  1807  bears  the  title,  A  Glance  at 
my  Views  and  Essays  in  Education.  This  was  first  printed 
in  the  Journal  of  Education,  and  then,  without  any  material 
alteration,  in  Getta's  edition.  In  character  it  is  quite  different 
from  the  first,  and  is  obviously  Pestalozzi's  own  work, 
Niederer's  hand  being  scarcely  perceived. 

The  work  fulfils  the  promise  of  its  title,  being  a  shortened 
account,  first  of  that  idea  of  Pestalozzi's  which,  resulting 
originally  from  his  commiseration  for  the  poor,  ended  in  his 
plans  for  educational  reform,  and  then  of  the  different 
attempts  he  had  made  to  carry  these  plans  out.  Pestalozzi 
here  shows  clearly  and  forcibly  that  the  chief  cause  of  the 
evils  and  dangers  of  society  is  the  moral  and  intellectual 


428  APPENDIX  I. 

poverty  of  the  mass  of  men,  and  that  the  only  means  of 
safety  for  modern  civilization  is  the  realization  of  his  idea 
of  elementary  education. 

In  speaking  of  the  period  of  splendour  of  the  Yverdun 
institute,  Pestalozzi  recognizes  and  deplores  its  utter  in- 
sufficiency as  a  practical  demonstration  of  the  truth  of  his 
doctrine.  His  gwat  desire  is  to  have  a  school  for  quite 
young  poor  children,  nor  does  he  despair  of  being  able  to 
found  one  in  connection  with  the  institute. 

There  then  follow  some  quotations  from  a  work  with 
which  Pestalozzi  was  then  (1807)  occupied,  but  which  was 
never  published.  It  was  intended  to  replace  or  supplement 
the  books  written  at  Burgdorf,  especially  How  Gertrude 
Teaches  Tier  Children,  with  some  account  of  their  author's 
subsequent  experiences  and  the  progress  of  his  practical 
work.  The  book  was  in  the  form  of  letters  to  a  friend,  and 
Pestalozzi  gives  extracts  from  several  of  the  letters.  Judging 
from  these  extracts,  the  manuscript  was  already  in  a  very 
advanced  stage  and  very  interesting.  We  regret  that  we 
cannot  here  give  a  more  complete  account  of  it,  but  we 
would  particularly  recommend  the  extracts  from  the  seventh 
and  eighth  letters  to  all  who  can  read  German. 

The  book  which  contains  these  extracts,  and  which  con- 
sists of  sixty-four  pages,  is  not  entirely  free  from  tedious 
repetitions ;  and  yet  it  is  well  worth  reading,  if  only  for  the 
true  and  fairly  complete  idea  it  gives  of  the  views  and  work 
of  the  author. 

A  third  publication  of  the  same  period  is  entitled,  Report 
to  Parents  and  the  Public  on  the  State  and  Organization 
of  Pestalozzi's  Institute  in  the  Tear  1807,  and  contains,  in 
forty-nine  pages,  an  account  of  the  establishment,  which, 
though  not  fully  detailed,  is  complete  in  all  essential  points. 
The  main  lines  of  the  sketch  are  perfectly  true,  though  in 
parts  it  is  a  little  over-coloured  ;  sometimes,  too,  it  describes 
what  has  been  attempted  rather  than  what  has  been  really 
done.  The  consequence  was,  that  many  of  the  statements  it 
contained  were  refuted  by  the  adversaries  of  the  new  method, 
who  took  a  somewhat  unfair  advantage  of  the  weapons  with 
which  it  furnished  them.  This  was  the  first  cause  of  that 
long  battle  of  words  which  proved  so  fatal  to  the  institute. 

It  is  well  known  that  the  man  who  always  took  the 
most  favourable  view  of  things  at  the  institute,  and  always 


NIEDERERS  COLLABORATION.  429 

endeavoured  to  reassure  Pestalozzi  when  the  old  man  was 
dissatisfied  with  his  work,  was  Niederer ;  and  the  illusions 
which  run  through  the  Report  to  Parents  are  undoubtedly 
his.  Pestalozzi  himself  recognized  them  as  illusions  after- 
wards, as  we  see  in  the  notes  he  added  to  the  second  edition 
in  1823,  two  of  which  run  thus : 

On  page  4 :  "  What  is  said  here  is,  speaking  generally, 
merely  the  effect  of  the  great  illusions  we  entertained  at 
that  time,  and  which,  kept  up  by  favourable  external  cir- 
cumstances, made  us  see  things  as  we  should  have  liked 
them  to  be,  and  as,  considering  our  principles,  our  wishes, 
and  our  efforts,  we  thought  they  ought  to  be." 

On  page  24  :  "  In  this  passage,  as  in  many  others,  I  am  not 
so  much  giving  expression  to  my  own  simple  and  primitive 
views  on  education  as  to  certain  philosophical  ideas  which 
were  not  my  own,  which  had  not  ripened  in  my  mind,  and 
which  I  did  not  perfectly  understand.  In  spite  of  all  our 
good  intentions,  these  ideas  had  disturbed  not  only  myself 
but  several  of  my  colleagues ;  I  may  even  go  so  far  as  to 
say  that  it  was  they  that  led  me  astray  and  were  the  secret 
cause  of  the  misfortunes  that  finally  overtook  my  establish- 
ment." 

The  three  short  works  we  have  just  described  were  pub- 
lished by  Pestalozzi  in  the  eleventh  volume  of  Cotta's  edi- 
tion, under  the  general  title  of,  Views  and  Experiences  in 
Connection  with  the  Idea  of  Elementary  Education,  togethed 
with  Notices  and  Fragments  concerning  the  Course  anj> 
History  of  the  Enterprises  of  my  Life.  The  whole  was 
preceded  by  a  preface  from  which  we  quote  the  following 
passage,  referring  to  the  Principles  and  Plan  of  a  Journal, 
published  in  1807. 

"  This  writing  must  not  be  looked  upon  as  giving  my  own 
personal  view,  but  rather  as  expressing  the  views  of  the 
friends  I  then  had  about  me.  The  presumption  and  incom- 
prehensible blindness  that  made  us  so  miscalculate  our 
strength  and  means  at  that  time,  should  be  the  more  interest- 
ing to  the  public  that  these  fantastic  dreams  were  the  first 
and  chief  cause  of  all  the  misfortune,  humiliation,  and  sorrow 
that  have  since  fallen  upon  me  and  mine,  and  brought  my 
work  within  an  ace  of  destruction." 

The  discourse  delivered  by  Pestalozzi  at  the  meeting  of 
the  Society  of  Friends  of  Education  at  Lenzburg  in  1809, 


430  APPENDIX  1. 


was  printed  shortly  afterwards  in  the  Weekly  Journal,  but 
not  before  it  had  been  revised  and  expanded  by  Niederer.  In 
1821  it  appeared,  with  a  preface,  in  Cotta's  eighth  volume, 
where,  although  it  had  been  considerably  reduced  for  the 
purpose  by  Pestalozzi,  it  runs  to  a  hundred  and  eighty-seven 
pages.  The  preface  begins  thus : 

"  This  discourse,  which  differs  materially  from  the  one  I 
really  pronounced  in  Lenzburg,  and  bears  the  plainest  marks 
of  the  foreign  influence  I  was  then  under,  shows  clearly 
enough  the  spirit  that  prevailed  amongst  us  at  that  time. 
We  were  carried  away  by  a  premature  desire  to  explain  our 
whole  doctrine  and  system  by  basing  it  upon  a  philosophical 
principle  which  should  embrace  it  in  all  its  parts  and  all  its 
developments,  and  we  entirely  lost  sight  of  the  fact  that  our 
practical  work  was  still  most  defective  and  incomplete." 

In  the  face  of  this  statement,  we  cannot  consider  the 
Lenzburg  discourse,  as  we  possess  it  to-day,  to  be  the  pure 
expression  of  Pestalozzi's  thought ;  it  is  much  rather  the  ex- 
pression of  Niederer's  conception  of  it.  This,  however,  does 
not  make  it  any  the  less  interesting  or  less  worth  consider- 
ing. 

After  referring  to  the  many  erroneous  opinions  that  have 
been  formed  of  the  method  and  the  institute,  and  to  the 
official  examination  that  he  has  just  felt  compelled  to  ask 
of  the  Swiss  Diet,  Pestalozzi  invites  all  friends  of  education 
to  come  and  judge  for  themselves.  But  as  it  is  impossible 
to  thoroughly  understand  what  is  being  done  at  Yverdun 
without  being  acquainted  with  the  fundamental  principle  of 
the  method  and  its  various  applications,  he  is  anxious  that 
everybody  should  have  as  clear  and  complete  a  general  no- 
tion of  his  system  as  possible.  He  therefore  proceeds  to 
draw  up  a  statement  of  his  method,  characterizing  it  as  ele- 
mentary, organic,  and  genetic,  and  developing  each  of  these 
three  points  of  view  at  considerable  length. 

A  complete  analysis  of  this  work  would  take  us  too  far, 
besides  obliging  us  to  repeat  much  that  we  have  said  else- 
where. 


The  eighteenth  and  last  volume  of  Seyffarth's  collection 
contains  some  extracts  from  the  Weekly  Journal /  Niederer's 
work  entitled :  Pestalozzi's  Enterprise  in  its  Relation  with 


NIEDERERS  COLLABORATION.  431 

the  Education  of  our  Time ;  and  the  main  points  of  the  long, 
sad  quarrel  that  followed  the  official  inspection  of  the  insti- 
tute in  1809.  Sundry  smaller  works  of  Pestalozzi's,  the 
manuscripts  of  which  he  had  entrusted  to  Niederer,  are  also 
here  published  for  the  first  time.  These  are : 

1.  Pestalozzi  Sketched  by  Himself. 

This  is  the  letter  Pestalozzi  addressed  to  Ith,  when  the 
latter  was  appointed  to  inspect  the  institute  of  Burgdorf . 

2.  Epochs. 

This  is  a  historical  sketch  from  a  social  and  political  point 
of  view,  and  is  connected  with  An  Inquiry  into  the  Course 
of  Nature  in  the  Development  of  the  Human  Race. 

3.  Religious  Education:   a  Glance   at  Christ  and  His 
Doctrine. 

Pestalozzi  here  establishes  the  agreement  between  hia 
views  and  the  Saviour's  teaching. 

4.  The  Method. 

This  is  the  report  presented  by  Pestalozzi  to  the  Society 
of  the  Friends  of  Education  in  1800,  and  referred  to  by  us  in 
its  proper  place. 

5.  Pestalozzi's  New  Year's  Day  Discourse  for  1816. 

In  this  discourse  the  old  man's  heart  is  seen  to  be  divided 
between  grief  for  the  loss  of  the  wife  who  had  always  been 
his  good  angel,  and  joy  at  seeing  his  work  in  safety.  The 
latter  sentiment,  however,  was  but  the  result  of  an  illusion  ; 
for  there  is  no  doubt  that  he  exaggerated  the  value  and 
bearing  of  the  reforms  carried  out  by  Schmidt  since  his  re- 
turn. In  this  same  discourse  the  thought  that  death  is 
drawing  near  stimulates  his  religious  feelings,  and  he  ex- 
claims :  — 

"  Brothers  and  friends !  I  hear  God's  voice  saying :  Your 
grave  is  being  prepared  ;  you  are  about  to  go  down  into  it ; 
your  friends  will  place  you  there  as  they  have  lately  placed 
the  companion  of  your  life ;  you  are  soon  to  enter  into 
eternal  rest  in  the  sight  of  your  whole  house,  in  the  sight  of 
the  men  and  children  who  are  yours,  and  whom  you  will 
leave  behind.  I  see  myself  lying  in  my  grave ;  I  see  myself 
entering  into  eternity,  contemplating  God,  and  praying  to 
Him  in  truth  and  holiness.  But  I  awake.  I  have  seen  my 
destiny.  It  is  not  in  the  transitory  work  of  this  earthly  life; 
it  is  purity  and  innocence ;  it  is  the  power  of  devotion  of  a 
faithful  life  to  the  service  of  God  and  humanity;  it  is  the 


432  APPENDIX  I. 


imitation  of  Jesus  Christ,  through  faith  in  Him  crucified, 
and  for  the  glory  of  God  the  Father." 

6.  Pestalozzi's  New  Year's  Day  Discourse  for  1817. 

Here  the  old  man  examines  his  past.  He  has  undertaken 
work  out  of  all  proportion  to  his  strength,  and  would  have 
failed  but  for  God's  assistance.  As  it  is,  his  work  remains 
defective  and  incomplete  because  some  have  not  done  what 
they  could  to  bring  God's  blessing  upon  it.  Pestalozzi  him- 
self is  one  of  these,  and  this  is  the  reason  that  his  seventy- 
one  years  have  not  been  sufficient.  There  is  now  no  longer 
a  moment  to  lose  ;  the  new  year  must  not  be  like  so  many 
past  years  ;  it  must  not  find  the  former  man,  but  a  new  man, 
stripped  of  his  errors,  his  weaknesses,  and  his  negligences, 
and  regenerated  by  the  love  of  God  and  faith  in  Jesus 
Christ.  He  concludes  thus : — 

"  What  must  I  do  to  become  such  a  new  man  ?  How  am 
I  to  complete,  establish,  and  sanctify  the  work  of  my  short 
life  on  earth  ? 

"  Seeking  to  understand  the  real  aim  of  my  life,  the  real 
motive  of  that  work  which  took  such  entire  possession  of  me 
that  I  found  no  rest  iu  anything  else,  I  seem  to  hear  an  in- 
ternal voice  saying  that  it  was  the  need  to  free  man  from  the 
sensual  domination  of  his  animal  nature,  and  raise  him  above 
the  view  of  this  world  to  a  clear  and  divine  view  of  the 
spiritual  essence  of  his  being.  .  .  .  But  what  am  I,  that  I 
should  dare  to  lay  my  hand  to  this  sublime  task  ?  Am  I  not 
like  a  child  who,  admiring  the  heavens,  should  deem  it  pos- 
sible to  place  the  sun  upon  his  head,  take  the  moon  into  his 
hands,  and  make  a  crown  for  his  forehead  of  the  stars  ?  .  .  . 

"  That  which  I  long  for  and  seek  after,  that  which  is  holy, 
unchanging,  and  eternal  in  the  aim  of  my  life,  is  in  no  way 
mine ;  it  is  humanity's  and  God's.  What  am  I,  what  are  we 
all,  in  such  work  as  this  ?  A  nothing  that  passes  with  the 
moment,  like  the  insect  of  a  day. 

"  But  though  the  outward  structure  of  our  work  should 
crumble,  it  is  not  humanity's,  not  God's  work  that  disappears. 
It  is  merely  the  hammer,  a  stone,  a  grain  of  sand  falling  from 
God's  building,  where  we  have  foolishly  and  ignorantly  striven 
to  fix  it." 


APPENDIX   II. 

A   1JST  OF  PESTALOZZl'S  WORKS   IN  CHRONOLOGICAL  ORDFK.1 


1765.  Agis. 

1776.  An  appeal  to  the  friends  and  benefactors  of  humanity  to  support  an 
institution  intended  to  provide  education  and  work  for  poor  country 
children. 

1777.  Three  letters  on  the  education  of  poor  children. — A  few  words  on 
the  most  degraded  portion  of  humanity.    An  appeal  to  the  charitable 
to  come  to  its  assistance. 

1778.  An  account  of  the  educational  establishment  for  poor  children  at 
Neuhof. 

1780.  The  Evening  Hour  of  a  Hermit. 

1781.  Leonard  and  Gertrude  (vol.  i.). — Note  on  the  sumptuary  laws. 

1782.  Christopher  and  Eliza  — The  Swiss  News,  a  weekly  newspaper  (2  vols.) 
— *  The  Education  of  Children  in  the  Home.     Incomplete,  never  pub- 
lished by   Pestalozzi,  and  only  to  be  found   in  Niederer's  Notes  on 
Pestalozzi,  published  at  Aix-la-Chapelle,  in  1828  and  1829. 

1783.  Leonard  and  Gertrude  (vol.  ii.).     On  Legislation  and  Infanticide. 
1785.  Leonard  and  Gertrude  (vol.  iii.). 

1787.  Leonard  and  Gertrude  (vol.  iv.). 

1792.  On  the   Causes   of  the  French  Revolution.     Never    published    by 
Pestalozzi. 

1797.  Fables   (2  vols.). — An  Inquiry  into  the  Course  of  Nature   in   the 
Development  of  the  Human  Race. 

1798.  Political  Pamphlets  on  the  Swiss  Revolution  :  A  Word  to  the  Legis- 
lative Councils  of  Helvetia ;  On  Tithes ;  Awake,  People  of  Helvetia ; 
To  my  Country;  To  the  People  of  Helvetia;  Appeal  to  the  Inhabi- 
tants of  the  old  Democratic  Cantons ;  On  the  Present  and  Future  of 
Humanity. 

1799.  Letter  to  Gessner  on  the  work  at  Stanz. 

1800.  Memoir  presented  to  the  Society  of  Friends  of  Education.     Never 
publisbed  by  Pestalozzi,  and  only  to  be  found  hi  Niederer's  Notes  on 
Pestalozzi,  and  in    the  eighteenth   and   last  volume   of    Seyffarth's 
edition. 

1801.  How  to  Teach  Spelling  and  Reading. — How  Gertrude  Teaches  her 
Children. — Epochs;  a  historical   sketch,  from  a  social  and  political 
point  of  view.     In  Seyffarth's  last  volume. — Religious  Education;  a 
Glance  at  Christ  and  His  Doctrine.     In  Seyffarth's  last  volume. 

1  Those  marked  with  an  asterisk  are  not  included  in  Seyffarth's  edition. 


434  APPENDIX  II. 


1802.  Views  on  certain   points  to  •which  the  legislators  of   Switzerland 
should  particularly  direct   their    attention  — Pestalozzi    sketched    by 
himself ;  a  note  addressed  to  Ith.     In  Seyffarth's  last  volume. 

1803.  *  The  Book  for  Mothers.    Written  in  great  part  by  Krusi. — *  Sense- 
impressing  Exercises  on  Number.      Compiled  by  Krusi  and  Buss. — 
*  Sense-impressing  Exercises  on  Size  and  Form.     Compiled  hy  Krusi 
and  Buss. — The   Natural   Schoolmaster.      Never  published    by   Pes- 
talozzi. 

1807.  On  the  Principles  and  Plan  of  a  Journal  announced  in  1807. 
Revised  and  in  part  written  by  Niederer. — A  Glance  at  my  Views  and 
Essays  in  Education.  Eevised  by  Niederer. — Eeport  to  parents  and 
the  public  on  the  educational  institute  of  Yverdun.  Revised  and  in 
part  written  by  Niederer. 

1807  to  1811.    Weekly  Journal  of  Education   (3  vols.) ;  written   in  great 
part  by  Niederer  and  others. 

1808  to  1818.  Discourses  to  my  Establishment. 

1809.  Discourse  pronounced  before  the  Society  of  Friends  of  Education, 
at  Lenzburg.  Revised  and  added  to  by  Niederf  r. 

1813.  Letter  to  Mr.  Delbruck,  Privy  Councillor  at  Berlin. 

1815.  To  the  Innocent,  Serious,  and  Noble-minded  ones  of  my  Country. 

1820.  A  Word  on  my  Pedagogical  Labours,  and  the  Organization  of  my 
Institute  in  1820. — Practical  Elementary  Exercises  on  Number.  Com- 
piled by  Schmidt. — Elementary  Exercises  on  Size  and  Form.  Com- 
piled by  Schmidt. 

1820  to  1826.  Cotta's  edition  of  Pestalozzi's  works  (15  vols.),  published  at 
Stuttgart. 

1822.  Vie~ws  on  Industry,  Education,  and  Politics,  in  connection  with  the 
State  of  our  Country  before  and  after  the  Revolution. 

1826.  The  Song  of  the  Swan. — My  Experiences  in  my  Educational  Estab- 
lishments of  Burgdorf  and  Yverdun.  Discourse  pronounced  as  Presi- 
dent of  the  Helvetian  Society,  the  26th  of  April,  1826. 


APPENDIX  IH. 

BOOKS  TO  CONSULT  ON  PESTALOZZI. 

1801.  Der  deutsche  Merkur.    (Articles  by  Wieland.) 

1802.  Amtlicher  Bericht  iiber  die  Pestalozzische  Anstalt  in  Burgdorf,  von  J. 
Ith,  etc.    Bern. 

1803.  Pestalozzi,  seine  Lehrart  und  seine  Anstalt,  von  A.  Soyaux.  Berlin. — 
PestalozzVs  Metliode  und  ihre  Anwendung  in  der  Volksschule ,  von  F. 
H.  E.  Schwartz.    Bremen. — Ueber  Pestalozzi's  Lehrart,  Akademit  der 
Wissenschaften,  von  Fischer.    Berlin. — Bemerkungen  g>'gen  Pestalozzi's 
Unterrichtsmethode,  von  J.  N.  Steinmiiller.   Zurich. 

1804.  Pestalozzi's  Idee  eines  ABC  der  Aiischauuny,  untersucht  und  wissen- 
schaftlich  ausgefiihrt,  von  J.  F.  Herbart.  Gottingen. — Briefe  aus  Burg- 
dorf  Uber  Pestalozzi,  von  A.    Griiner.     Hamburg. — Darstellung   und 
Priifung  der   Pestalozzisclien   Methode  in    Burgdorf,   von    Passavant. 
Lemgo. — Historische  Denkwiirdigkeiten  der  helvetischen  Staatsunnoalz- 
ung,  von  Zschokke. — Kritik  der  Pestalozzischen  Methode,  von  Johan- 
sen.  Jena  und  Leipzig. — Beleuchtung  der  Pestalozzischen  Groszsprecher- 
eien.     Erfurt. 

1805.  Expose  de  la  methods  Gttmentaire  de  Pestalozzi,  par  D.  Alex.  Cha- 
vannes.  Vevey. — Bericht  an  S"  Maj.  den  Konig  von  Preussen  iiber  das 
Pestalozzische  Institut  in  Burgdorf,  von  C.  Witte.    Leipzig. — Geist  deir 
Pestalozzischen  Methode,  von  EVald.  Bremen. — Einige  Grundregeln  dfr 
Erziehungsknnst  nach  Pestalozzi,  von  Plamann.     Halle. 

1806.  Briefe  aus  MiJnchenbuchsee  iiber  Pestalozzi  und  seine  Elementurbild~ 
vngsmethode,  von  Tiirck.    (2vol.)    Leipzig. — Aufa&tze  fur  und  gegen  die 
Pestalozzische  Unterrichtsmethode. 

1807.  Seise  nach  der  Schweiz.  Torlitz,  Copenhagen  und  Leipzig. 

1809.  Padagogische  Mittheilungen,  von  Kimly.   BerUn. — Veber  die  Pesta- 
lo:zische  Lehrmethode,  von  Siisskiud.     Stuttgard. 

1810.  Rapport  sitr  I'institut  de  M.  Pestalozzi  a  Yverdon,  par  le  p%re  Girard. 
Fribourg. — Erfahrungen  und  Ansichten,  von  Jos.  Schmidt.    Heidelberg. 
— Priifung  des  Werthes  der  Pestalozzischen  Methode,  von  d'Autel.  Stutt- 
gard.—  Ueber  das   Wesentliche  der  von   Pestalozzi,   etc.,  von   Hagen. 
Erlangen. — Peslalozzi,  Hauptmomente  seiner  MetJiode,  von  Lehmann. 
Konigsberg. — Geist  und  Vorschritte  der  Pestalozzischen  Bildungsinethode, 
von  Ewald.    Mannheim. —  Briefe  aus  einer  Reise  dnrch  Siiddeutschland, 
die  Schweiz,  etc.,  von  Kessler.  Leipzig. —  Veber  Pestalozzi's  Grundsatze 
und  Methoden,  von  Aug.  Herm.  Niemeyer. — Knrze  und  fassliche  Dar- 
stellung  der  Pestaloztischen  Methode.     Stuttgard. 

1811.  Das  Pestalozzische  Institut  an  das  Publikum.    (Niederer's  work,  with 
preface    by  Pestalozzi.)     Yverdun. — Ueber   die   Verbesserung  des  Ele- 
mentarschulwesens  in  Preussen,  von  Neumann.     Potsdam. 


436  APPENDIX  III. 


1812.  Precis  sur  I'institut  d'Yverdon,p&T  M.-A.  Jullien.  (Pamph.)  Milan. — 
Esprit  de  la  methods  Pestalozzi,  par  M.-A.  Jullien    (2  vol.)  Milan  — 
Versuch  einer  Metakritik  der  Weltof.rbesserung,  oder  ein  Wort  iiber  Pesta- 
lozzi und  Pestaiozzismus.  Ulm. — Ueber  die  Schrift  Pestalozzi's :   Unter- 
nehmungen,  etc.,  von  J.  H.  Bremi.  Zurich. 

1812-1813.  Pextalozzi's  Untemehmungen  im  Verhdltniss  zur  Zeitkultur,  von 
J.  Niederer.  (2  vol.)  Stuttgard. 

1813.  Ueber  Pestalozzi's  Grundidee  der  Erziehung  und  Methode,  von  La- 
domus.     Heidelberg. — De  VAllemagne,  par  Mme  de  Stae'l. — Selbstschau, 
von  H.  Zschokke. 

1814.  Mittheilungen  iiber  Pestalozzi's  Eigenthumlichkeit,  Leben  und  Erxie- 
hungsanstnlten,  von  Henning  (in  Harnisch  Schulrath). 

1815.  Plan  d' organisation  pour  les  ecoles  primaires,  par  F.  Cuvier.  Paris. 
1818.    Der  Kuiistyeixt,   etc.,   oder  Pestalozzi   und    seine     Widersacher,  von 

Kniewel.    Berlin. 

1822.  Wahrheit  und  Irrthum,  von  Jos.  Schmidt. —  Wie  Herr  Jos.  Schmidt  die 
Pestalozzische  Anstait  leitet,  von  Jer.  Meyer.  Stuttgard. 

1826.  Beitragznr  Biographic  Heinricli  Pestalozzi's  und  zur  Beleuchtung  seiner 
neuesten  Schrift:  Meine  Lebensschicksale,  von  Ed.  Biber.    St.  Gallen. 

1827.  Fellenberg' s  Klatie  iiber  P esttdozzi.  Karlsruhe. — Notice  sur  Pestalozzi, 
par  Mme  Adele  du  Thon.    Geneve. — Notice  sur  Pestalozzi,  par  Ch.  Mon- 
nard,  daus  la  Revue  encyclopedique  de  Paris. 

1828-1829.  Hutoire  de  la  Suisse,  continuation  tie  Mutter,  par  Ch.  Monnard. 
— Erinnerungen  an  Vater  Pestalozzi,  von  E.  Frohlich.  Brugg. — Pesta- 
lozzische Blatter,  von  J.  Niederer.  (2  vol.)  Aix-la-Chapelle. 

1829.  Vaterlehren,  fin  Vermdchtniss  von  Pestalozzi  an  seme  Zoglinget  von. 
H.  Kriisi.     Trogen. 

1830.  Padagogische  Rede  iiber  Pestalozzi,  etc.,  von  Nageli.    Zurich. 
ly.33.  Der  dreimonatliche  Bildungskurs,  von  E.  Fellenberg.    Bern. 

1834.  Pestalozzi's  inedirte  Brief e  und  letzte  Schicksale,  von  Fellenberg.  Berg. 

1837.  Kurze  Skizze  meines  padagogischen  Lebens,  von.  J.  Eamsauer.    Olden- 
hurg. 

1838.  Pestalozzi's  Leistungen  im  Erziehungsfache,  von  Heusaler.    Basel. 

1840.  Erinnerungen  aus  meinem  padagogischen  Leben  und   Wirken,  von  H. 
Kriisi.  Stuttgard. 

1841.  Geschichte  der  Pddagogik,  von  D*  K.  Schmid. — Denkschrift  avf  G. 
H.  L.  Nicolovius.  Bonn. 

1843.  Pestalozzi,  von  Dr  Bandlin.  Schaffhausen. — Notice  sur  la  vie  de 
Pestalozzi,  par  E.  de  Guimps,  dans  le  Journal  d'Yverdon. 

1845.  Diesterweg,  Kalhch,  Massmann,  Die.  Feier  des  hundertjahrigen  Geburts- 
tags  Pestalozzi's.    Berlin. — Heinrich  Pestalozzi,  von  Diesterweg.    Berlin. 
—Niederer's   hriefe   an    Tobler,  1797-1803.    Genf.  —  Pestalozzi's   Idee 
der  Menschenbi/dung.    Niirnberg. — Pestalozzi's  Anstrengungen,  von  Abs. 
Kalberstadt.  —  Pestalozzi's   Leben,    Wollen    und    H  irken,   von   Appel. 
Frankfurt. 

1846.  Pestalozzische  Blatter,  von  Eamsauer  und  Zahn.  Elberfeld  und  Moers. 
—  Erinnerungen  aus  meinem   Leben   bei   Pestalozzi,   von   Ackermann. 
Frankfurt. — Heinrich  Pestalozzi,  etc.,  von  K.  J.  Blochmann.    Leipzig. — 
Die  wichtigeren  Grundsatze  von  Pestalozzi,  von  Probst.    Liestal.— Pesta- 
lozziana,  aus  dem   Januarheft :    La  Minerva.  —  Erinneruniien  an  H. 
Pestalozzi,  von  Elditt.    Konigsberg. — Vortrage  an  der  Pcstalozziachen 


APPENDIX  III.  437 


Feier,  von  Heussler,  Lehrrmnn,  etc.  Basel. — Der  Geist  von  Vater  Pe*ta+ 
lozzi,  von  Dr  Bandlin.  Ziirich. —  Schu'chronik,  von  Zahn.  N°  1. — 
Pextnlozzi,  der  lievolutionjiar,  von  Bauer,  sein  Zogling.  Charlottenburg. 
— Heinrich  Pestalnzzi,  von  Burgwardt.  Altona. — Pestalozzi's  Leben  und 
Ansichten,  von  Christoffel.  Zurich. — Kin  Wort  zur  hrinnerung  an  den 
hundtrtjdhrigen  Geburtstag  Pestalozzi's,  von  Collmann.  Kassel. — Riick- 
blick  auf  Pestalozzi,  etc.,  von  Kortum.  Heidelberg. — Kin  Wort  iiber 
Pestalozzi  und  seine  unsterblichen  Verdienste,  von  Diesterweg.  Berlin. — 
Mittheilungen  iiber  Pestalozzi,  von  Kroger.  Hamburg. — Heinrich  Pesta- 
lozzi, von  Lueger.  Hamburg. — Pestalozzi.  Bed"  zur  Festfeier,  von  Eosen- 
kranz.  Konigsberg. — Pestalozzi's  Verhaltniss  zum  modernen  Leben,  von 
Scheuenstuhl.  Ansbach. — Rede  bei  der  Sdkularfeier  Pestalozzi's,  von 
Thaulow.  Kiel. — Vorschlag  zu  einem  Denkmal  Pestalozzi's,  von  Weiss. 
Merseburg. — Pestalozzi,  sein  Leben  und  Wirken,  von  der  Schulsynode. 
Zurich.  —  Pestalozzi's  Idee  der  Wohnstube,  Vortrag  zu  Winterthur. 
Zurich — Die  Feier  des  Pestalozzi  tages  vor  deutschen  Frauen.  Berlin. — 
Bcde  bei  der  Geddchtnissfeier  Pestalozzi's,  von  Hottinger.  Zurich. — Rede 
bei  der  Pestalozzifeier,  von  Heer.  Zurich. — Pestalozzifeier  in  Dresden. 
Leipzig.  —  Pestalozzifeier  in  Hamburg.  Hamburg. — Pestalozzifeier  in 
Plauen.  Plauen. — Pestalozzifeier  in  Bernbura.  Bernburg. 
1847.  Pestalozzi  und  sein  Neuhof,  von  Jos.  Schmidt. — Pestalozzi,  von  Bagge. 
Frankfurt. 

1850.  Etudes  sur  Ja  vie  et  les  travaux  de  Pestalozzi,  ouvrage  couronne  par 
1'institut  de  France,  par  Th.  Pompee.    Paris. 

1851.  Pestalozzi  vnd  Rousseau,  von  Zoller.  Frankfurt. 

1853.  Biographie  de  H.  Pestalozzi,  par  Mlle  Chavannes.    Lausanne. 

1854.  branke,  Rousseau  und  Pestalozzi,  von  Kramer.  Berlin. 

1855.  Dinter  und  Pestalozzi.  Schulblatt  Brandenburg,  von  Palmer.  Bran- 
denburg.— V.rinnerungen  aus  meinem  Schulleben,  von  Lange.    Potsdam. 

1857.  Geschichte  der  Pddagogik,  von  Baumer.    Stuttgard. — Pestalozzi,  sa  vie, 

sa  methode  et  ses  prindpes,    par  J.  Paroz.     Berne. 
1859.  Heinrich  Pestalozzi  und  Anna  Schulthess,   von  Morikofer.    Ziircher 

Taschenbuch.     Zurich. 
1861.  Heinrich  Pestalozzi,  von  Boack.  Leipzig. — Die  Schweizerische  Littera- 

tur  des  18.  Jahrhunderts,  von  Morikofer.     Leipzig. 

1863.  J.  H.  Pestalozzi,  von  Schenkel.    Heidelberg. 

1864.  Karl  Ritter,  ein  Lebensbild,  etc.,  von  Kramer.    Halle. 

1865.  Mein  Lebansmorgen,  von  Harnisch.    Berlin. 

1868.  Zur  Biographie  Heinrich  Pestalozzi's,  von  alt  Seminardirektor  Morf, 
Waisenvater  in  Winterthur  (I.  Band).   Winterthur. — Histoire  universidle 
de  la  pedagogie,  par  J.  Paroz.    Paris. — Pestalozzi   und  der  Pestalozzi- 
Verein,  von  Aurich. 

1869.  Pestalozzi,  von  Harweck.    Halle. — Heinrich  Pestalozzi,  ein  Lebensbild, 
ton  Alberti.    Berlin. 

1870.  Das  We$en  der  Pestalozzischen  Methode  als  Grundlape  einer  christlichen 
Erziehung,  von  Heer.    Zurich.  —Pestalozzi  in  Leipzig,  Festrede.  In  den 
Leipziger  Blattern  fiir  Padagogik.  3  Heft.    Leipzig. — Heinrich  Pesta- 
lozzi, von  Ferd.  Schmidt.  Berlin  H.  Kastner. 

1871.  Der  Padogog  H.  Pestalozzi,  von  G.  v.  Zeschwitz,  Erlang^n. 
1871-1872.  Padagogische  Reisebriefe,  von  Seyffarth.   (Preussisches  Schul- 

blatt.     Berlin. 


438  APPENDIX  III. 


1872.  J.  H.  Pestalozzi,  von  Seyffarth.    Berlin. —  Souvenirs  de  L.  Vulliemin. 
Lausanne. — Pestalozzi's  sammtliche  Werke  gesichtet,  rervollstdndigt  tind 
mit  erlduternden  Einleitungen  versehen,  von  Seyffarth.  (16  vol.)  Bran- 
denburg. 

1873.  Pestalozzi,  par  F.  Bordier,  ancien  pasteur.     NeuchStel. — Pestal<>zzi\ 
sammtliche  Werke,  Nachtrage  von  L.W.  Seyffarth.    Brandenburg,  2  vol. 
— Rousseau  und  Pestalozzi,  Zwei  Vortrage  von  Karl  Schneider.  Brom- 
berg. — Pestalozzi's   Antheil  an   der  Erneuerung   des   deutschen  7olkes, 
Vortrag  von  J.  Wiesinger,  Pfarrer.    Kissingen. 

1875.  Pestalozzi.    Idee    und   Macht   der  menmlilichen   Entioickelung,   von 
Josephine    Zehnder-Stadlin.    Gotha.— Pestalozzi,  the   influence   uj   his 
principles  andpractice  on  elementary  education,  by  Jos.  Payne.    London. 

1876.  Johannes  von  Muralt,  von  Hermann  Dalton.  Wiesbaden. — Pestalozzi, 
Notizie  della  sua  vita  e  delle  sue  opere,  di  G.  Curti.     Bellinzona. 

1877.  Comenius  und  Pestalozzi  als  Beyriinder  der  Volksschule,  von  H.  Hoff- 
meister.  Berlin. — The  School.    (A  series  of  articles.) 

1878.  Pestalozzi  und  seine  Aussaat,  von  G.  Heer.     Glarus. — Heiwich  Pesta- 
lozzi. Ein  Lebensbild,  von  Ferd.  Schmidt.    Berlin. 

1879.  Die  sozial-politischen  Grundlagen  der  Padagogik  Pestalozzis.  Beilage 
zum  Jabresbericht  uber  die  Bealschule  in  Strassburg,  von  G.  Kohler  — 
Das  Wesen  der  pestalozzischen  Methode,  von  J.  Justus  Heer.  Zurich. — 
Pestalozzi  und  Fellenberg,  von  0.  Hunziker.  Langensalza. 

1880.  Pestalozzi,  par  1'abbe  Crampon.   (Extrait  du  Contemporain.)  Paris. — 
Pestalozzi,  schweizerischs  Jupendfreund  und  V^lksbildner,  von  B  Both. 
Leipzig. — Pextalozzibldtter.    Herausgegeben  von   der  Kommission   dea 
Pestalozzistiibchen  in  Zurich.    (Still  appearing.) — J  Bamsauer,  Kurze 
Skizze   meines   pddngogischen  Lebens.      Mit  Vorwort  von  Zezschwitz. 
Oldenburg.— Das  Christenthum  Pestalozzis,  von  H.  Debes.   Gotba. 

1881.  Die  Gruttdgedanken  von  Pestalozzi  und  Froebel,  von  F.  Beust.  Zurich. 
—Erinnerungen  an  Vater  Pestalozzi,  von  Em.  Frohlich.  (Pddngogische 
"Blatter  von  Kehr,  N°  3.) — Briefwechsel  zwischen  Pestalozzi  und  dem 
Minister  Zinzendorf,  1783-1790.     (Padagogium  von  Dittes,  3e  annee.) 

1882.  Die  Padagogik  Joh.  H.  Pestal'-zzis  in  wortgetreuen  Auszugen  aus  seinen 
Werken,   von  A.   Vogel.    Bernburg. — Ein  Erziehungs-Haus   im   Geiste 
Pestalozzis   und  Froebels,  von  Bertha  Meyer.    Zurich. — Lienhard  und 
Gertrud.  Neue  Yolks-  und  Jubilaumsausgabe.    Zurich. — Pestalozzi,  par 
Guillaume.    (In  Buisson's  Pedagogical  Dictionary).    Paris. 

1883.  Erziehungs-  und  Unterrichtsplan  der  ersten  Lehranstalt  im  Schlosse  zu 
Miinchenbuchsee,  von  H.  Morf.     Winterthur. 

1884.  Jakob  Heussi,  Erinnerungen  aus  dessen  Leben,  von  A.  Diihr.    Leipzig. 

1885.  Joh.  H.  Pestalozzi.  Ein  padagogisches  Volksbuch,  von  Ed.  Wiessuer. 
Bernbuig. — Rousseau  und  Pestalozzi,  von  0.  Hunziker.   Basel.— Zur 
Biographie  Pestalozzis,  von  H.  Morf.     H.  and  III.  Band.    Winterthur. 

1886.  Pestalozzi,  Sieve  de  J.-J.  Rousseau,  par  F.  Herisson.  Paris.  —System- 
atische  Dartteilung  der  Padagogik  Pestalozzis,  von  A.  Vogel.     Potsdam. 

1887.  Einige  Hldtter  aus  Pestalozzis  Lebens-  und  Leidensgesckichte,  von  H. 
Morf.     Langensalza. — Das  Leben  des   Pddagogen  Heiniich  Pestalozzi, 
von  H.   P.    H.   Griinfeld.    Schleswig. — Joseph  Schmidt,  von.  II.  Morf. 
Winterthur. — Biographie  Pestalozzis,  von  F.Man.    (In  den  ausgewahlten 
Schriften  Pestalozzis.)     Langensalza. 


SYLLABUS    OF 
DE  GUIMPS'S  LIFE  AND  WORK  OF  PESTALOZZI. 

From  the  International  Reading  Circle  Course  of 
Professional  Study. 


Pages  i  to  35. 

I.   CHILDHOOD. 

1.  Influence  of  home  life. 

2.  Influence  of  school  experience. 

3.  Influence  of  country  scenes. 

II.    STUDENT   LIFE. 

4.  Influence  of  the  university  spirit. 

5.  Influence  of  political  excitement. 

III.    AGRICULTURAL   LIFE. 

6.  Influence  of  courtship  and  marriage. 

7.  Influence  of  farm  life  and  its  failure. 

Pages  36  to  72. 

IV.    THE   FATHER. 

8.  Remorse  over  misdirected  efforts  and  purposes. 

9.  Journal   of   his   son's   mental    development,   and   the 

father's  methods  in  early  education. 

10.  Plans  of  the  father  for  controlling  and  directing  the 

will  of  the  child. 

11.  Continued  illness  and  early  death  of  Jacobli. 

V.   PHILANTHROPIST. 

12.  Pestalozzi's  motives  in  establishing  the  Neuhof  enter- 

prise. 

13.  His  success  during  the  first  year  with  twenty  children. 

(439) 


440  SYLLABUS  OF 


14.  His  appeal  to  the  public  for  means  to  extend  the  work. 

15.  His  letters  on  the  subject  of  rural  education  of  poor 

children. 

16.  Account,  after  four  years  in  the  work,  of  each  child  in 

the  establishment. 

17.  Causes  of  the  abandonment  of  the  enterprise  in  1780. 

after  six  years  of  persistent  effort. 

18.  Material  distress  of  Pestalozzi,  and  the  relief  afforded 

by  the  benevolent  services  of  Elizabeth  Naef. 

Pages  73  to  124. 

VI.    THE   WRITER. 

19.  His  own  statement  of  the  motive  prompting  his  efforts. 

20.  The  circumstances  connected  with  the  production  of 

his  first  notable  book  on  education. 

21.  Passages  from  his  Evening  Hour  of  a  Hermit,  setting 

forth  the  necessity  for  a  study  of  man's  nature  and  the 
conforming  of  educational  processes  to  that  nature. 

22.  Circumstances  of  his  production  of  the  Leonard  and 

Gertrude. 

23.  His  minor  writings  during  the  period  in   which  the 

Leonard  and  Gertrude  was  written. 

24.  The  purpose  and  method  of  his  Swiss  news. 

25.  Letters  revealing  his  habit  of  thought  during  the  ten 

years  of  his  seclusion  at  Neuhof. 

26.  Specimens  of  Pestalozzi's  "Fables." 

27.  His  Inquiry  into  the  Course  of  Nature  in  the  Develop- 

ment of  the  Human  Race. 

28.  Characteristics  of  Pestalozzi's  doctrine  before  1798. 

Pages  125  to  172. 

29.  His  change  from  an  opponent  to  a  supporter  of  French 

intervention  in  the  political  affairs  of  Switzerland. 


DE   GUIMPS'S  LIFE  AND   WORK  OF  PESTALOZZI.    441 

30.  Acceptance  by  the  Government  of  his  plan  for  a  naA 

tional  poor-school,  and  the  change  of  plan  brought 
about  by  the  devastation  of  the  Canton  of1  Unter- 
walden. 

31.  Opening  of  the  Government  orphanage  at  Stanz. 

32.  Prosperity  of  the  undertaking  in  spite  of  many  ob- 

stacles. 

33.  His  work  at  Stanz  brought  to  a  close  by  the  necessity 

for  using  the  orphanage  buildings  as  a  military 
hospital. 

34.  Pestalozzi's   own   detailed   account   of   his    work    at 

Stanz. 

35.  Summary  of  principles  developed  in  the  Stanz  experi- 

ment. 

Pages  173  to  250. 

36.  Pestalozzi's  desire  to  become  a  schoolmaster  at  the 

age  of  fifty. 

37.  The  many  objections  raised  against  his  acceptance  as 

a  schoolmaster. 

38.  The  single  advantage  that  overbalanced  all  the  de- 

ficiencies. 

39.  His  attempt  to  teach  in  the  school  with  the  shoemaker 

Dysli. 

40.  His  successes  and  his  failures  in  the  second  school  at 

Burgdorf. 

41.  Fortunate  association  with  Hermann  Kriisi. 

42.  Kriisi's  introduction  to  the  work  of  teaching. 

43-  Organization  of  the  Institute  in  Burgdorf  Castle,  and 
its  influence  in  attracting  favorable  attention  to 
Pestalozzi's  valuable  ideas. 

44.  Provision  for  the   normal   instruction  of  teachers  at 
Burgdorf. 
30 


442  SYLLABUS  OF 


45.  Transfer  of  the  Institute  to  Yverdun. 

46.  Publication  of  the  work,  How  Gertrude  Teaches  her 

Children. 

47.  The  pedagogical  principles  of  this  work  as  set  forth 

by  Morf. 

48.  Other  publications  of  Pestalozzi  while  at  Burgdorf. 

Pages  251  to  274. 

49.  Characteristics  of  Pestalozzi's  helpers  at  the  opening 

of  the  Yverdun  school. 

50.  Characteristics  of  the   Yverdun  school  in   its  earlier 

days. 

51.  Recognition  by  the  Prussian  Government  of  the  value 

of  Pestalozzi's  educational  ideas. 

52.  Pestalozzi  as  the  inspirer  and  initiator  in  the  institute, 

but  incapable  of  carrying  out  his  own  ideas  in  prac- 
tical instruction. 

53.  Ritter's  obligation  to  the  influence  of  Pestalozzi. 

54.  Influence  of  the  Yverdun   school  carried  abroad  by 

visiting  students  of  its  spirit  and  method. 
-55.  Routine  of  the  day  at  the  Yverdun  school. 
56.  Educational  publications  from  the  Yverdun  press. 
j57.  The  attention  devoted  to  manual  work  and  to  physical 

training. 

58.  The  observance  of  festivals  and  holidays. 

Pages  275  to  320. 

59.  Pestalozzi's  New-Year's  address  of  1808  expressive  of 

sad  discouragement. 

60.  Dissimilarity  of  age  and  of  earlier  influences  on  the 

part  of  pupils  one  cause  of  the  failure  at  Yverdun. 


DE   GUIMPS'S  LIFE  AND   WORK  OF  PESTALOZZI.    443 

6 1.  Lack  of  the  authoritative  discipline  necessary  to  so 

large  an  aggregation  of  children  another  cause. 

62.  Discord  between  the  chief  assistants  a  third  cause  of 

the  failure. 

63.  Adverse  report  of  the  examining  commission  appointed 

by  the  Swiss  Government. 

64.  Influence  upon  the  school  of  prominent  teachers  who 

came  at  various  times  into  its  corps. 

65.  Incidental  experiment  by  Pestalozzi  in  the  teaching  of 

Latin. 

66.  Pestalozzi's  interviews  with  the  Emperor  of   Russia 

and  the  King  of  Prussia. 

67.  Schmidt's  supremacy  in  the  administration  of  affairs 

and  its  consequences. 

Pages  321  to  358. 

68.  Seven  years  in  which  Yverdun  was  entirely  under  the 

control  of  Schmidt. 

69.  Withdrawal  of  Pestalozzi's  most  helpful  associates. 

70.  Pestalozzi's  discourse  in  1818  upon  his  seventy-second 

birthday. 

71.  The  opening  of  the  poor  school  near  Yverdun. 

72.  Schmidt's  action  in  brining  about  the  transfer  of  the 

poor-school  work  to  the  Yverdun  institution. 

73.  Conflict  between  Pestalozzi  and  the  municipality  of 

Yverdun  brought  on  by  Schmidt. 

74.  Conflicts  between  Schmidt  and  the  earlier  co-workers 

in  Pestalozzi's  enterprises. 

75.  Agreement  entered  into  by  the  various  persons  con- 

cerned in  these  conflicts. 

76.  Expulsion  of  Schmidt  from  the  Canton  of  Yverdun 

and  the  closing  of  the  institute. 


SYLLABUS  OF 


Pages  359  to  398. 

77.  Pestalozzi's  return  to  Neuhof,  the  scene  of  his  earliest 

and  now  of  his  latest  labors. 

78.  His  writings  during  this  last  period  of  his  life. 

79.  The  attack  upon  Pestalozzi  made  by  Biber,  of  Wtir- 

temberg. 

80.  Death  of  Pestalozzi  while  striving  to  reply  to  Biber's 

attack. 

81.  Characteristic  extracts  from  Pestalozzi's  Song  of  the 

Swan. 

82.  Unjust  self-accusations  and  condemnations  of  his  own 

labors  in  the  Experiences. 

83.  His  discussion  in  the  Discourse  before  the  Helvetian 

Society,  his  latest  preserved  writing,  of  social  ques- 
tions that  are  even  to-day  prominent. 

84.  Personal   recollections   of    Pestalozzi    by   Roger   De 

Guimps,  the  author  of  our  book. 

Pages  399  to  432. 

85.  Pestalozzi  not  a  religious  man  until  subjected  to  se- 

vere adversity. 

86.  His  Christianity  shown  in  his  spirit  and  acts  rather 

than  in  profession. 

87.  His  acceptance  of  Christian  truths  more  and   more 

definite  and  complete  in  his  later  years. 

88.  Pestalozzi's   philosophy  consisting  in  a   new  concep- 

tion of  man's  nature  and  powers. 

89.  In  his  view,  man  innately  possessing  all  moral,  phys- 

ical, and  intellectual  powers  in  germ,  to  be  developed 
by  natural  means. 

90.  This  law  of  natural  development  by  the  action  of  in- 

ward forces  determining  all  the  work  of  education. 


DE   GUIMPS'S  LIFE  AND   WORK  OF  PESTALOZZL    445 

91.  In  moral  development  each  individual  faculty  of  the 
heart  to  be  set  in  action  and  exercised,  by  arousing 
appropriate  feelings  and  desires. 

.  In  physical  development  graduated  gymnastic  exer- 
cises to  call  into  activity  the  various  powers  of  the 
body. 

93.  Intellectual  development  to  begin  with  sense-impres- 

sion and  to  proceed  by  means  of  graded  exercise, 

94.  The  application  of  these  principles  of  development  in 

the  several  branches  of  study  would  constitute  Pes- 
talozzi's  Elementary  Method, 


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Chronicle. 

/^U STAVE  FLAUBERT,  as  seen  in  his  Works  and 
Correspondence.  By  JOHN  CHARLES  TARVER.  With  Portrait. 
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ETER    THE   GREAT.     By  K.  WALISZEWSKI,  au- 

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Chronicle. 

"  A  brilliant  book,  a  profound  study  of  human  character,  and  a  dispassionate  and 
learned  survey  of  modem  Russian  history.  .  .  .  A  strange,  a  terrible  stdy  ;  fascinating 
by  the  power  of  the  living  human  force,  which  compels  admiration." — London  Sketch. 

"  It  is  a  marvelous  story,  this  of  Peter  the  Great,  and  it  has  been  told  with  great 
spirit  by  the  author."— London  Saturday  Review. 

"If  ever  there  was  a  man  of  genius  it  was  Peter  the  Great.  He  is  the  one  Russian 
of  his  time  whose  name  has  corned  own  through  the  centuries,  and  he  was  almost  the 
only  Russian  of  his  day  who  won  an  international  reputation.  Russia  in  those  days 
stood  in  need  of  a  man  like  him,  and  how  well  he  served  her  is  fully  told  in  this  book. 
.  .  .  The  cardinal  merit  of  this  book  is  that  it  increases  our  knowledge  of  mediaeval 
Russia." — New  York  Herald. 

"  M.  Waliszewski  knows  his  subject  well,  and  in  his  work  he  gives  the  most  con- 
sistent and  intelligible  survey  of  Russian  life  and  character  that  has  been  offered  by 
any  of  the  modern  historians." — Chicago  Evening  Post. 

"  A  biography  illuminated  by  an  active  imagination,  a  romance  in  which  there  is  no 
conscious  fiction,  but  where  the  elements  are  fused  in  the  alembic  of  a  mind  that  can 
conjure  back  the  remote  past." — Philadelphia  Press. 

"  There  has  not  been  a  novel  published  this  season  that  is  as  interesting— as  exciting 
and  thrilling,  if  you  will— as  this  biography  of  one  of  the  most  remarkable  men  the 
world  has  ever  seen.  ...  A  literary  treat  for  those  who  carefully  read  it."— Buffalo 
Commercial. 

"One  of  the  most  fascinating  books  of  the  year;  a  great  historical  painting,  done 
with  patience  and  exactitude,  but  also  with  boldness  and  brilliancy." — Chicago  Times- 
Herald. 

"  Will  be  found  as  interesting  as  the  most  absorbing  fiction." — Boston  Globe. 

"  This  is  a  trustworthy  history ;  it  bears  the  marks  of  painstaking  truthfulness ;  it 
is  scholarly,  graphic,  comprehensive,  and  just.  We  read  it  with  a  sense  of  being  led  by 
an  intelligent  guide  and  of  listening  to  a  candid  judge  and  critic.  .  .  .  The  story 
has  been  told  in  a  brilliant  and  powerful  way,  and  there  is  no  book  better  adapted  to 
the  needs  of  Western  readers  at  this  era ;  full  of  the  right  information,  rich  in  sugges- 
tion, keen  in  discrimination,  and  far-sighted  in  outlook,  it  is  history  and  prophecy  in 
one." — New  York  Evangelist. 

"  Such  a  vivid  picture  of  Peter  the  man  has  not  been  put  on  paper  before.  Walis- 
zewski's  history  thrills  with  life  and  interest,  and  is  a  brilliantly  colored  romance ;  yet 
he  sternly  keeps  to  facts,  and  gives  the  impression  of  having  impartially  judged  and 
rigorously  presented  a  fair  and  conscientious  view  of  this  portion  of  history." — Chicago 
News. 

"  An  exceedingly  interesting  and  valuable  estimate  of  Peter's  character  and  work." 
—  Review  of  Reviews. 

"  A  brilliant  and  notably  readable  book,  filled  with  vivid  impressions,  and  not  lack- 
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may  be  called  companionableness.  To  travel,  with  him  must  have  been  a  particular 
pleasure.  He  has  sense  of  humor,  a  way  of  getting  over  rough  places,  and  understand- 
ing of  human  nature.  There  is  not  a  dull  chapter  in  his  book." — New  York  Times. 

"  Mr.  Logan  has  written  of  the  things  which  he  saw  with  a  fullness  that  leaves  noth- 
ing to  be  desired  for  their  comprehension ;  with  an  eye  that  was  quick  to  perceive  their 
novelty,  their  picturesqueness,  their  national  significance,  and  with  a  mind  not  made 
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whatever  he  has  touched  upon.  .  .  .  Few  books  of  travel  are  at  once  so  readable  and 
so  informing,  and  not  many  are  so  successfully  illustrated ;  for  the  pictures  tell  a  story 
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able book  in  which  history  and  biography  are  brought  in  to  give  one  a  good  general  im- 
pression of  affairs." — Hartford  Post. 

"  Mr.  Logan  has  presented  in  attractive  language,  reenforced  by  many  beautiful 
photographs,  a  most  entertaining  narrative  of  his  personal  experiences,  besides  a  daz- 
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entertaining." — Bostm  Globe. 

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LIFE  OF  HIS  ROYAL  HIGHNESS  THE 
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HE    SOVEREIGNS   AND    COURTS   OF 

E  UROPE.  The  Home  and  Court  Life  and  Characteristics  of 
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"The  anonymous  author  of  these  sketches  of  the  reigning  sovereigns  of  Europe 
appears  to  have  gathered  a  good  deal  of  curious  information  about  their  private  lives, 
manners,  and  customs,  and  has  certainly  in  several  instances  had  access  to  unusual 
sources.  The  result  is  a  volume  which  furnishes  views  of  the  kings  and  queens 
concerned,  far  fuller  and  more  intimate  than  can  be  found  elsewhere." — New  York 
Tribune.  

D.  APPLETON  AND  COMPANY,  NEW  YORK. 


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D.  APPLETON  &  CO.'S  PUBLICATIONS. 


'HE  RISE  AND  GROWTH  OF  THE  ENG- 
LISH NATION.  With  Special  Reference  to  Epochs  and 
Crises.  A  History  of  and  for  the  People.  By  W.  H.  S. 
AUBREY,  LL.  D.  In  Three  Volumes.  I2mo.  Cloth,  $4.50. 

"  The  merit  of  this  work  is  intrinsic.  It  rests  on  the  broad  intelligence  and  true 
philosophy  of  the  method  employed,  and  the  coherency  and  accuracy  of  the  result? 
reached.  The  scope  of  the  work  is  marvelous.  Never  was  there  more  crowded  into 
three  small  volumes.  But  the  saving  of  space  is  not  by  the  sacrifice  of  substance  or 
of  style.  The  broadest  view  of  the  facts  and  forces  embraced  by  the  subject  is  exhibited 
with  a  clearness  of  arrangement  and  a  definiteness  of  application  that  render  it  per- 
ceptible to  the  simplest  apprehension." — New  York  Mail  and  Express. 

"A  useful  and  thorough  piece  of  work.  One  of  the  best  treatises  which  the 
general  reader  can  use."— London  Daily  Chronicle. 

"Conceived  in  a  popular  spirit,  yet  with  strict  regard  to  the  modern  standards. 
The  title  is  fully  borne  out.  No  want  of  color  in  the  descriptions." — London  Daily 
News. 

"The  plan  laid  down  results  in  an  admirable  English  history." — London  Morning 
Post. 

"  Dr.  Aubrey  has  supplied  a  want  His  method  is  undoubtedly  the  right  one." — 
Pall  Mall  Gazette. 

"  It  is  a  distinct  step  forward  in  history  writing ;  as  far  ahead  of  Green  as  he  was  of 
Macaulay,  though  on  a  different  line.  Green  gives  the  picture  of  England  at  different 
times — Aubrey  goes  deeper,  showing  the  causes  which  led  to  the  changes." — New 
York  World. 

"A  work  that  will  commend  itself  to  the  student  of  history,  and  as  a  comprehen- 
sive and  convenient  reference  book." — The  A  rgonaut. 

"Contains  much  that  the  ordinary  reader  can  with  difficulty  find  elsewhere  unless 
he  has  access  to  a  library  of  special  works. " —  Chicago  Dial. 

"  Up  to  date  in  its  narration  of  fact,  and  in  its  elucidation  of  those  great  principles 
that  underlie  all  vital  and  worthy  history.  .  .  .  The  painstaking  division,  along  with 
the  admirably  complete  index,  will  make  it  easy  work  for  any  student  to  get  definite 
views  of  any  era,  or  any  particular  feature  of  it.  ...  The  work  strikes  one  as  being 
more  comprehensive  than  many  that  cover  far  more  space." — The  Christian  In- 
telligencer. 

•  "One  of  the  most  elaborate  and  noteworthy  of  recent  contributions  to  historical 
literature." — Netv  Haven  Register. 

"  As  a  popular  history  it  possesses  great  merits,  and  in  many  particulars  is  excelled 
by  none.  It  is  full,  careful  as  to  dates,  maintains  a  generally  praiseworthy  impartiality, 
and  it  is  interesting  to  read." — Buffalo  Express. 

"  These  volumes  are  a  surprise  and  in  their  way  a  marvel.  .  .  .  They  constitute  an 
almost  encylopzdia  of  English  history,  condensing  in  a  marvelous  manner  the  facts 
and  principles  developed  in  the  history  of  the  English  nation.  .  .  .  The  work  is  one  of 
unsurpassed  value  to  the  historical  student  or  even  the  general  reader,  and  when  more 
widely  known  will  no  doubt  be  appreciated  as  one  of  the  remarkable  contributions  to 
English  history  published  in  the  century." — Chicago  Uni-versalist. 

"  In  every  page  Dr.  Aubrey  writes  with  the  far  reaching  relation  of  contemporary 
incidents  to  the  whole  subject.  The  amount  of  matter  these  three  volumes  contain  is 
marvelous.  The  style  in  which  they  are  written  is  more  than  satisfactory.  .  .  .  The 
work  is  one  of  unusual  importance." — Hartford  Post. 


New  York :  D.  APPLETON  &  CO.,  72  Fifth  Avenue. 


T 


D.  APPLETON  &  CO.'S  PUBLICATIONS. 

HE  BEGINNERS  OF  A  NATION.  A  History 
of  the  Source  and  Rise  of  the  Earliest  English  Settlements  in 
America,  with  Special  Reference  to  the  Life  and  Character  oi 
the  People.  The  first  volume  in  A  History  of  Life  in  the 
United  States.  By  EDWARD  EGGLESTON.  Small  8vo.  Cloth, 
gilt  top,  uncut,  with  Maps,  $1.50. 

"  Few  works  on  the  period  which  it  covers  can  compare  with  this  in  point  of  mere 
literary  attractiveness,  and  we  fancy  that  many  to  whom  its  scholarly  value  will  not  ap 
peal  will  read  the  volume  with  interest  and  delight." — New  York  Evening  Post. 

"  Written  with  a  firm  grasp  of  the  theme,  inspired  by  ample  knowledge,  and  made 
attractive  by  a  vigorous  and  resonant  style,  the  book  will  receive  much  attention.  It 
is  a  great  theme  the  author  has  taken  up,  and  he  grasps  it  with  the  confidence  of  a 
master." — New  York  Titnet. 

"Mr.  Eggleston's  'Beginners'  is  unique.  No  similar  historical  study  has,  to  our 
knowledge,  ever  been  done  in  the  same  way.  Mr.  Eggleston  is  a  reliable  reporter  of 
facts;  but  he  is  also  an  exceedingly  keen  critic.  He  writes  history  without  the  effort 
to  merge  the  critic  in  the  historian.  His  sense  of  humor  is  never  dormant  He  renders 
some  of  the  dullest  passages  in  colonial  annals  actually  amusing  by  his  witty  treatment 
of  them.  He  finds  a  laugh  for  his  readers  where  most  of  his  predecessors  have  found 
yawns.  And  with  all  this  he  does  not  sacrifice  the  dignity  of  history  for  an  instant" — 
Boston  Saturday  Evening  Gazette. 

"  The  delightful  style,  the  clear  flow  of  the  narrative,  the  philosophical  tone,  and 
the  able  analysis  of  men  and  events  will  commend  Mr.  Eggleston's  work  to  earnest 
students." — Philadelphia  Public  Ledger. 

"The  work  is  worthy  of  careful  reading,  not  only  because  of  the  author's  ability  as  a 
literary  artist,  but  because  of  his  conspicuous  proficiency  in  interpreting  the  causes  of 
and  changes  in  American  life  and  character." — Boston  Journal. 

"  It  is  noticeable  that  Mr.  Eggleston  has  followed  no  beaten  track,  but  has  drawn 
his  own  conclusions  as  to  the  early  period,  and  they  differ  from  the  generally  received 
version  not  a  little.  The  book  is  stimulating  and  will  prove  of  great  value  to  the  stu- 
dent of  history." — Minneapolis  Journal. 

"  A  very  interesting  as  well  as  a  valuable  book.  ...  A  distinct  advance  upon  most 
that  has  been  written,  particularly  of  the  settlement  of  New  England." — Newark 
Advertiser. 

"  One  of  the  most  important  books  of  the  year.  It  is  a  work  of  art  as  well  as  of 
historical  science,  and  its  distinctive  purpose  is  to  give  an  insight  into  the  real  life  and 
character  of  people.  .  .  .  The  author's  style  is  charming,  and  the  history  is  fully  as  inter- 
esting as  a  noveL" — Brooklyn  Standard-Union. 

"The  value  of  Mr.  Eggleston's  work  is  in  that  it  is  really  a  history  of 'life,'  not 
merely  a  record  of  events.  .  .  .  The  comprehensive  purpose  of  his  volume  has  been 
excellently  performed.  The  book  is  eminently  readable." — Philadelphia  Times. 


New  York  :  D.  APPLETON  &  CO.,  72  Fifth  Avenue. 


D.  APPLETON    &    CO.'S    PUBLICATIONS. 


ISTOR  Y  OF  THE  PEOPLE 

OF  THE  UNITED  STATES, 
from  the  Revolution  to  the  Civil 
War.  By  JOHN  BACH  MCMASTER. 
To  be  completed  in  six  volumes. 
Vols.  I,  II,  III,  and  IV  now  ready. 
8vo.  Cloth,  gilt  top,  $2.50  each. 

"...  Prof.  McMaster  has  told  us  what  no  other 
historians  have  told.  .  .  .  The  skill,  the  animation,  the 
brightness,  the  force,  and  the  charm  with  which  he  ar- 
rays the  facts  before  us  are  such  that  we  can  hardly 
conceive  of  more  interesting  reading  for  an  American 
citizen  who  'cares  to  know  the  nature  of  those  causes 
which  have  made  not  only  him  but  his  environment 
and  the  opportunities  life  has  given  him  what  they  are." 

JOHN    BACH   MCMASTER.  — N-   Y.   Times. 

"Those  who  can  read  between  the  lines  may  discover  in  these  pages  constant 
evidences  of  care  and  skill  and  faithful  labor,  of  which  the  old-time  superficial  essay- 
ists, compiling  library  notes  on  dates  and  striking  events,  had  no  conception ;  but 
to  the  general  reader  the  fluent  narrative  gives  no  hint  of  the  conscientious  labors, 
far-reaching,  world-wide,  vast  and  yet  microscopically  minute,  that  give  the  strength 
and  value  which  are  felt  rather  than  seen.  This  is  due  to  the  art  of  presentation. 
The  author's  position  as  a  scientific  workman  we  may  accept  on  the  abundant  tes- 
timony of  the  experts  who  know  the  solid  worth  of  his  work ;  his  skill  as  a  literary 
artist  we  can  all  appreciate,  the  charm  of  his  style  being  self-evident." — Philadelphia 
Telegraph. 

"The  third  volume  contains  the  brilliantly  written  and  fascinating  story  of  the  prog- 
ress and  doings  of  the  people  of  this  country  from  the  era  of  the  Louisiana  purchase 
to  the  opening  scenes  of  the  second  war  with  Great  Britain — say  a  period  of  ten  years. 
In  every  page  of  the  book  the  reader  finds  that  fascinating  flow  of  narrative,  that 
clear  and  lucid  style,  and  that  penetrating  power  of  thought  and  judgment  which  dis- 
tinguished the  previous  volumes." — Columbus  State  Journal. 

"  Prof.  McMaster  has  more  than  fulfilled  the  promises  made  in  his  first  volumes, 
and  his  work  is  constantly  growing  better  and  more  valuable  as  he  brings  it  nearer 
to  our  own  time.  His  style  is  clear,  simple,  and  idiomatic,  and  there  is  just  enough 
of  the  critical  spirit  in  the  narrative  to  guide  the  reader." — Boston  Herald. 

"Take  it  all  in  all,  the  History  promises  to  be  the  ideal  American  history.  Not  so 
much  given  to  dates  and  battles  and  great  events  as  in  the  fact  that  it  is  like  a  great 
panorama  of  the  people,  revealing  their  inner  life  and  action.  It  contains,  with  all  its 
sober  facts,  the  spice  of  personalities  and  incidents,  which  relieves  every  page  from 
dullness." — Chicago  Inter-Ocean. 

"  History  written  in  this  picturesque  style  will  tempt  the  most  heedless  to  read. 
Prof.  McMaster  is  more  than  a  stylist;  he  is  a  student,  and  his  History  abounds  in 
evidences  of  research  in  quarters  not  before  discovered  by  the  historian." — Chicago 
Tribune. 

"  A  History  sui  generis  which  has  made  and  will  keep  its  own  place  in  our  litera. 
ture." — New  York  Evening  Post. 

"His  style  is  vigorous  and  his  treatment  candid  and  impartial."— New  York 
Tribune. 


New  York :  D.  APPLETON  &  CO.,  72  Fifth  Avenue. 


D.  APPLETON  &  CO.'S  PUBLICATIONS. 


ABRAHAM  LINCOLN:  The  True  Story  of  a  Great 

<**.    LIFE.    By  WILLIAM   H.   HERNDON  and  JESSE  W.  WEIK. 

With  numerous  Illustrations.     New  and  revised  edition,  with 

an  introduction  by  HORACE  WHITE.     In  two  volumes.     i2mo. 

Cloth,  $3.00. 

This  is  probably  the  most  intimate  life  of  Lincoln  ever  written.  The 
book,  by  Lincoln's  law-partner,  William  H.  Herndon,  and  his  friend  Jesse 
W.  Weik,  shows  us  Lincoln  the  man.  It  is  a  true  picture  of  his  surround- 
ings and  influences  and  acts.  It  is  not  an  attempt  to  construct  a  political 
history,  with  Lincoln  often  in  the  background,  nor  is  it  an  effort  to  apotheo- 
size the  American  who  stands  first  in  our  history  next  to  Washington.  The 
writers  knew  Lincoln  intimately.  Their  book  is  the  result  of  unreserved 
association.  There  is  no  attempt  to  portray  the  man  as  other  than  he  really 
was,  and  on  this  account  their  frank  testimony  must  be  accepted,  and  their 
biography  must  take  permanent  rank  as  the  best  and  most  illuminating  study 
of  Lincoln's  character  and  personality.  Their  story,  simply  told,  relieved 
by  characteristic  anecdotes,  and  vivid  with  local  color,  will  be  found  a  fasci- 
nating work. 

"  Truly,  they  who  wish  to  know  Lincoln  as  he  really  was  must  read  the  biography 
of  him  written  by  his  friend  and  law-partner,  W.  H.  Herndon.  This  book  was  im- 
peratively needed  to  brush  aside  the  rank  growth  of  myth  and  legend  which  was 
threatening  to  hide  the  real  lineaments  of  Lincoln  from  the  eyes  of  posterity.  On  one 
pretext  or  another,  but  usually  upon  the  plea  that  he  was  the  central  figure  of  a  great 
historical  picture,  most  of  his  self-appointed  biographers  have,  by  suppressing  a  part 
of  the  truth  and  magnifying  or  embellishing  the  rest,  produced  portraits  which  those  of 
Lincoln's  contemporaries  who  knew  him  best  are  scarcely  able  to  recognize.  There  is, 
on  the  other  hand,  no  doubt  about  the  faithfulness  of  Mr.  Herndon's  delineation.  The 
marks  of  unflinching  veracity  are  patent  in  every  line." — New  York  Sun, 

"Among  the  books  which  ought  most  emphatically  to  have  been  written  must  be 
classed  'Herndon's  Lincoln.'" — Chicago  Inter-Ocean. 

"  The  author  has  his  own  notion  of  what  a  biography  should  be,  and  it  is  simple 
enough.  The  story  should  teil  all,  plainly  and  even  bluntly.  Mr.  Herndon  is  naturally 
a  very  direct  writer,  and  he  has  been  industrious  in  gathering  material.  Whether  an 
incident  happened  before  or  behind  the  scenes,  is  all  the  same  to  him.  He  gives  it 
without  artifice  or  apology.  He  describes  the  life  of  his  friend  Lincoln  just  as  he  saw 
it." — Cincinnati  Commercial  Gazette. 

"  A  remarkable  piece  of  literary  achievement — remarkable  alike  for  its  fidelity  to 
facts,  its  fullness  of  details,  its  constructive  skill,  and  its  literary  charm." — New  York 
Times. 

"  It  will  always  remain  the  authentic  life  of  Abraham  Lincoln." — Chicago  Herald. 

"The  book  is  a  valuable  depository  of  anecdotes,  innumerable  and  characteristic. 
It  has  every  claim  to  the  proud  boast  of  being  the  '  true  story  of  a  great  life.'" — Phila- 
delphia Ledger. 

"Will  be  accepted  as  the  best  biography  yet  written  of  the  great  President." — 
Chicago  Inter-Ocean. 

"Mr.  White  claims  that,  as  a  portraiture  of  the  man  Lincoln,  Mr.  Herndon's  work 
'will  never  be  surpassed.'  Certainly  it  has  never  been  equaled  yet,  and  this  new  edi- 
tion is  all  that  could  be  desired." — New  York  Observer. 

"  The  three  portraits  of  Lincoln  are  the  best  that  exist ;  and  not  the  least  charac- 
teristic of  these,  the  Lincoln  of  the  Douglas  debates,  has  never  before  been  engraved. 
.  .  .  Herndon's  narrative  gives,  as  nothing  else  is  likely  to  give,  the  material  from 
which  we  may  form  a  true  picture  of  the  man  from  infancy  to  maturity." — The  Nation. 


New  York  :  D.  APPLETON  &  CO..  72  Fifth  Avenue. 


D.   APPLETON  AND  COMPANY'S  PUBLICATIONS. 


THE  ANTHROPOLOGICAL   SERIES. 


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NOW  READY. 

HE   BEGINNINGS    OF   ART.      By  ERNST 

GROSSE,  Professor  of  Philosophy  in  the  University  of  Freiburg. 
A  new  volume  in  the  Anthropological  Series,  edited  by  Pro- 
fessor FREDERICK  STARR.  Illustrated.  i2mo.  Cloth,  $1.75. 

This  is  an  inquiry  into  the  laws  which  control  the  life  and  development  of  art,  and 
into  the  relations  existing  between  it  and  certain  forms  of  civilization.  The  origin  of 
an  artistic  activity  should  be  sought  among  the  most  primitive  peoples,  like  the  native 
Australians,  the  Mincopies  of  the  Andaman  Islands,  the  Botocudos  of  South  America, 
and  the  Eskimos ;  and  with  these  alone  the  author  studies  his  subject.  Their  arts  are 
regarded  as  a  social  phenomenon  and  a  social  function,  and  are  classified  as  arts  of  rest 
»nd  arts  of  motion.  The  arts  of  rest  comprise  decoration,  first  of  the  body  by  scarifica- 
tion, painting,  tattooing,  and  dress ;  and  then  of  implements — painting  and  sculpture ; 
while  the  arts  of  motion  are  the  dance  (a  living  sculpture),  poetry  or  song,  with  rhythm, 
and  music. 

OMAN'S    SHARE   IN  PRIMITIVE   CUL- 
TURE.    By  OTIS  TUFTON   MASON,  A.  M.,  Curator  of  the 
Department  of  Ethnology  in  the  United  States  National  Mu- 
seum.    With  numerous  Illustrations.     I2mo.     Cloth,  $1.75. 
"  A  most  interesting  rhumt  of  the  revelations  which  science  has  made  concerning 

the  habits  of  human  beings  in  primitive  times,  and  especially  as  to  the  place,  the  duties, 

and  the  customs  of  women." — Philadelphia  Inquirer. 

HE  PYGMIES.     By  A.    DE    QUATREFAGES,  late 

Professor  of  Anthropology  at  the  Museum  of  Natural  History, 
Paris.  With  numerous  Illustrations.  I2mo.  Cloth,  $1.75. 

"  Probably  no  one  was  better  equipped  to  illustrate  the  general  subject  than  Quatre- 
fages.  While  constantly  occupied  upon  the  anatomical  and  osseous  phases  of  his  sub- 
ject, he  was  none  the  less  well  acquainted  with  what  literature  and  history  had  to  say 
concerning  the  pygmies.  .  .  .  This  book  ought  to  be  in  every  divinity  school  in  which 
man  as  well  as  God  is  studied,  and  from  which  missionaries  go  out  to  convert  the  human 
being  of  reality  and  not  the  man  of  rhetoric  and  text-books." — Boston  Literary  World. 

"HE  BEGINNINGS  OF  WRITING.     By  W.  J. 
HOFFMAN,  M.  D.     With  numerous  Illustrations.    i2mo.   Cloth, 

$1.75- 

This  interesting  book  gives  a  most  attractive  account  of  the  rude  methods  employed 
by  primitive  man  for  recording  his  deeds.  The  earliest  writing  consists  of  pictographs 
which  were  traced  on  stone,  wood,  bone,  skins,  and  various  paperlike  substances.  Dr. 
Hoffman  shows  how  the  several  classes  of  symbols  used  in  these  records  are  to  be  in< 
terpreted,  and  traces  the  growth  of  conventional  signs  up  to  syllabaries  and  alphabets— 
the  two  classes  of  signs  employed  by  modem  peoples. 

IN  PREPARATION. 

THE  SOUTH  SEA  ISLANDERS.     By  Dr.  ScHMELTZ. 
THE  ZUNI.    By  FRANK  HAMILTON  GUSHING. 
THE  AZTECS.     By  Mrs.  ZELIA  NuTTALL. 

D.  APPLETON  AND  COMPANY.  NEW  YORK. 


T 


T 


D.  APPLETON  &  CO.'S  PUBLICATIONS. 

CLIMBING  IN  THE  HIMALAYAS.  By  WILLIAM 
MARTIN  CONWAY,  M.  A.,  F.  R.  G.  S.,  Vice-President  of  the  Al- 
pine Club  ;  formerly  Professor  of  Art  in  University  College, 
Liverpool.  With  300  Illustrations  by  A.  D.  McCoRMicK,  and 
a  Map.  8vo.  Cloth,  $10.00. 

This  work  contains  a  minute  record  of  one  of  the  most  important  and 
thrilling  geographical  enterprises  of  the  century — an  expedition  made  in 
1892,  under  the  auspices  of  the  Royal  Geographical  Society,  the  Royal 
bociety,  the  British  Association,  and  the  Government  of  India.  It  included 
an  exploration  of  the  glaciers  at  the  head  of  the  Bagrot  Valley  and  the  great 
peaks  in  the  neighborhood  of  Rakipushi  (25,500  feet) ;  an  expedition  to 
Hispar,  at  the  foot  of  the  longest  glacier  in  the  world  outside  the  polar 
regions  ;  the  first  definitely  recorded  passage  of  the  Hispar  Pass,  the  longest 
known  pass  in  the  world ;  and  the  ascent  of  Pioneer  Peak  (about  23,000 
feet),  the  highest  ascent  yet  authentically  made.  No  better  man  could  have 
been  chosen  for  this  important  expedition  than  Mr.  Conway,  who  has  spent 
over  twenty  years  in  mountaineering  work  in  the  Alps.  Already  the  author 
of  nine  published  books,  he  has  recorded  his  discoveries  in  this  volume  in  the 
clear,  incisive,  and  thrilling  language  of  an  expert. 

"  It  would  be  hard  to  say  too  much  in  praise  of  this  superb  work.  As  a  record  of 
mountaineering  it  is  almost,  if  not  quite,  unique.  Among  records  of  Himalayan  ex- 
ploration it  certainly  stands  alone.  .  .  .  The  farther  Himalayas  .  .  .  have  never  been 
so  faithfully — in  other  words,  so  poetically — presented  as  in  the  masterly  delicate 
sketches  with  which  Mr.  McCormick  has  adorned  this  book."—  London  Daily  News. 

"  This  stately  volume  is  a  worthy  record  of  a  splendid  journey.  .  .  .  The  book  is 
not  merely  the  narrative  of  the  best  organized  and  most  successful  mountaineering  ex- 
pedition as  yet  made ;  it  is  a  most  valuable  and  minute  account,  based  on  first-hand 
evidence,  of  a  most  fascinating  region  of  the  heaven-soaring  Himalayas." — Pall  Mall 
Gazette. 

"  Mr.  Conway's  volume  is  a  splendid  record  of  a  daring  and  adventurous  scientific 
expedition.  .  .  .  What  Mr.  Whymper  did  for  the  Northern  Andes,  Mr.  Conway  has 
done  for  the  Karakorum  Himalayas." — London  Times. 

"  It  would  be  difficult  to  say  which  of  the  many  classes  of  readers  who  will  welcome 
the  work  will  find  most  enjoyment  in  its  fascinating  pages.  Mr.  Conway's  pen  and  Mr. 
McCormick's  pencil  have  made  their  country  men  partners  in  their  pleasure." — London 
Standard. 

"...  In  addition  to  this,  Mr.  Conway  is  a  man  of  letters,  a.  student  (and  a  teacher, 
too)  of  art,  a  scholar  in  several  languages ;  one,  too,  who  knows  the  Latin  names  ot 
plants,  and  the  use  of  theodolite  and  plane  table.  From  him,  therefore,  if  from  any 
one,  the  world  had  a  right  to  expect  a  book  that  should  combine  accurate  observation 
and  intelligible  reporting  with  an  original  and  acute  record  of  impressions;  nor  will 
the  world  have  any  reason  to  be  disappointed." — London  Athenceum. 

"  With  its  three  hundred  illustrations  we  have  seldom  seen  a  volume  which  speaks 
to  the  eye  and  understanding  so  pleasantly  and  expressively  on  every  page.  .  .  .  We 
have  an  exhaustive  panorama  of  the  Himalayan  scenery,  of  the  manner  in  which  the 
rough  marching  was  conducted,  of  ascents  achieved  under  the  most  dangerous  condi- 
tions, and  of  the  troubles  and  humors  of  the  shifting  camps  where  the  coolies  rested 
from  their  labors." — London  Saturday  Review. 

"  Perhaps  no  book  of  recent  date  gives  a  simpler  or  at  the  same  time  more  effective 
picture  of  the  truly  wonderful  mountain  regions  lying  behind  the  northern  barrier  of 
India  than  Mr.  Conway's  striking  volume." — London  Telegraph. 


New  York :   D.  APPLETON  &  CO.,  72  Fifth  Avenue. 


DATE   DUE 


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